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COOPERAGE 



"Science ought to teach us to see the invisible 
as well as the visible in nature ; to picture in our 
mind's eye those operations that entirely elude 
the eye of the body ; to look at the very atoms of 
matter in motion, and at rest, and to follow them 
forth into the world of senses." 

Tyndall. 



COOPERAGE 

A TREATISE ON MODERN SHOP 
PRACTICE AND METHODS; FROM THE 
TREE TO THE FINISHED ARTICLE 

PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED 
COMPILED AND WRITTEN 



BY 



J. B. WAGNER 



Price, $5.00 




PUBLISHED BY 

J. B. WAGNER, YONKERS, N. Y. 

1910 



^ 



Copyright, 1910 
By J. B. WAGNER 

All Bights Reserved 



• * » 




4 ,{.A256036 



/ 



EJeMcation 

"This volume is respectfully dedicated to 
those inventors, designers and builders of coo- 
perage machinery and appliances, whose skill 
and devoted efforts along these lines have con- 
tributed so largely toward the perfection of our 
present methods of manufacture, placing our 
factories in the front rank with the leading in- 
dustries of the world." 

The Authoe. 




PREFACE 

The preparation of this work has occupied the writer's 
spare moments for a number of years. Originally the 
matter was not intended for publication, but the manu- 
script has grown so large and complete, which considera- 
tion, combined with many repeated requests, has induced 
the writer to publish the matter in book form. 

While all other trades and professions have their lit- 
erature more or less complete, the cooperage industry 
has never before been represented by any technical work, 
and appears to have been neglected along these lines. 
Therefore, we trust that the trade will appreciate our 
endeavors in bringing before them this work, as well as 
the difficulties encountered in compiling it, from the fact 
that it is the first of its kind in existence, and we hope 
that it will eventually prove to them a valuable aid. 

The man that studies and applies himself attentively 
to any subject, seeks to advise his fellow-workman or 
give an exposition of the general principles of any science, 
industry or trade, or of improving conditions generally, 
often meets at times with severe criticism. As there 
seems to be present in the minds of most persons a cer- 
tain amount of doubt and uncertainty as to the wisdom 
and ability of any person to advise them in these matters, 
even if the writer has been for a long time a student on 
the particular subject on which he writes. 

Therefore, in presenting this volume, which is launched, 
not as a literary effort nor as a scientific essay, but 
rather as a practical discussion of principles and methods, 
the writer is aware that his efforts may meet with such 
criticism; but we do not desire to leave the impression 
that it is our own individual work, or that it is an expres- 



viii PREFACE 

sion of opinion of a single individual, but rather a group- 
ing together of ideas offered by a considerable number of 
persons connected with the trade in its different 
branches, together with data continually collected during 
the author's extended career, both in this country and in 
Europe, of over a quarter of a century. 

In regard to originality, we lay claim to very little, for, 
although the facts contained in a large number of the 
items have been gained through years of practical ex- 
perience, we are indebted to others for a greater portion, 
and merely lay claim to have, as a great poet has said, 
''gathered the fruits of other men's labors and bound 
them with our own string." And we trust our efforts 
will present some information that may be applied with 
advantage, or serve at least as a matter of consideration 
or investigation. 

Although much of the information contained in this 
volume exists in the experience of practical men of the 
trade and in other technical and mechanical works, it has 
never before been published in systematic and accessible 
form and with special application to the cooperage in- 
dustry. In every case our aim has been to give the facts, 
and wherever a machine or appliance has been illustrated 
or commented upon, or the name of the maker has been 
mentioned, it is not with the intention either of recom- 
mending or disparaging his or their work, but are made 
use of merely to illustrate the text. 

The writer has endeavored to discuss the principles 
and methods in as plain common-sense words as the Eng- 
lish language will permit, and the preparation of the fol- 
lowing pages has been- a work of pleasure to the author. 
If they prove beneficial and of service to his fellow-work- 
men, he will have been .amply repaid. 

The Author. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The writer desires to acknowledge the kind assistance 
rendered him by such able writers as Mr. E. A. Sterling, 
Filibert Both, and others, of the Forest Service, Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, for the use he has made of extracts 
from some of their admirable articles written for this 
department, and the Hon. Gifford Pinchot, forester, for 
his very kind permission in the use of same. 

To our trade journals, notably, The National Coopers' 
Journal, — The Barrel and Box — Packages, and to nu- 
merous managers and superintendents of well-known 
mills and factories, and to individual fellow-workmen 
throughout the country. 

Much valuable information was furnished and many of 
the engravings which were used to illustrate the machin- 
ery were kindly loaned to the writer by the following 
named firms: 

Baldwin, Tuthill & Bolton Grand Eapids, Mich. 

Eochestee Bakkel Machine Wokks Rochester, N. Y. 

Wm. E. Hill & Co Kalamazoo, Mich. 

Mereitt Manufacturing Co Lockport, N. Y. 

E. & B. Holmes Machinery Co Buffalo, N. Y. 

TJ. S. Department Agriculture Washington, D. C. x 

Defiance Machine Works Defiance, Ohio 

The Noble Machine Works Fort Wayne, Ind. 

Covel Manufacturing Co Benton Harbor, Mich. 

John S. Oram Cleveland, Ohio 

The Peter Gerlach Co Cleveland, Ohio 

The Geo. Chaloner's Sons Co. Oshkosh, Wis. 

To these the author takes pleasure in herein acknowl- 
edging his indebtedness, with many thanks, for a large 
number of facts and for other assistance rendered him. 

The Author. 



CONTENTS 

SECTION I 

TIMBER 

Characteristics and Properties of Same — General Remarks — Classes of 
Trees — Wood of Coniferous Trees — Bark and Pith — Sap and Heart- 
wood — The Annual or Yearly Ping — Spring and Summer-wood — 
Anatomical Structure — List of the More Important Coniferous 
Woods — Wood of Broad-leaved Trees — Minute Structure — List of 
the More Important Broad-leaved Trees — Pange of Red Gum — 
Form of the Red Gum — Tolerance of the Red Gum — Its Demands 
upon Soil and Moisture — Reproduction of Red Gum — Second- 
growth Red Gum — Tupelo Gum — Uses of Tupelo Gum — Range of 
Tupelo Gum — Different Grains of Wood — Color and Odor — Weight 
of Wood — Weight of Kiln-dried Wood of Different Species 1-68 

SECTION II 

ENEMIES OF WOOD 

General Remarks — Ambrosia or Timber Beetles — Round-headed Borers 
—Flat-headed Borers — Timber Worms — Powder Post Borers — Con- 
ditions Favorable for Insect Injury — Crude Products — Round Tim- 
ber With Bark On — How to Prevent Injury — Saplings — Stave, 
Heading and Shingle Bolts — Unseasoned Products in the Rough — 
Seasoned Products in the Rough — Dry Cooperage Stock and 
Wooden Truss-hoops — Staves and Heads of Barrels Containing 
Alcoholic Liquids 69-86 

SECTION III 

FOREST FIRES 

General Remarks — Fires the Greatest Enemy of Forests — Some Esti- 
mates of Losses from Forest Fires — Losses from Fires Which Are 
Not Usually Considered — Conditions Which Affect Fire Losses — 
Erroneous Ideas Concerning Effects of Fires — Views of Lumbermen 
Concerning Forest Fires — Changed Conditions — Fire Protection on 
Private Lands — New Departures in Dealing with the Fire Prob- 
lem — Burning Slash or Refuse — Plan for Protecting Mature Tim- 
ber — The Question of Second Growth — Forest Fires — Their Cause 
and Prevention — Methods of Fighting Same 87-103 



xii CONTENTS 

SECTION IV 

SAWS 

General Saw Instructions— Saw-fitting Not a Mysterious Process— 
Filing-room Equipment — For Sharpening and Gumming Circu- 
lars — F or Swaging — For Side-dressing — For Hammering and Ad- 
justing — For Setting — For Swaging Cylinder Stave Saws — For 
Gumming and Sharpening Cylinder Stave Saws — For Knife 
Sharpening — For General Use — Some Causes of Poor Results in 
Saws — The Proper Care of Saws — Saws Out of Round — Sharpen- 
ing and Gumming — Fitting and Swaging — Lead of Saws — Num- 
ber and Style of Tooth — Circular Ripsaws — The Standard Num- 
, ber of Teeth in Circular Ripsaws — Cut-off or Cross-cut Saws — 
The Standard Number of Teeth in Cross-cut Saws — Collars for 
Saws — Speed of Saws — Hammering and Tensioning 104-139 

SECTION V 

KNIVES 

Practical Discussion — Different Ideas on Temper — Speed of Knives — 
Temper of Knives — Tempering Solutions — To Temper Knives — Ta- 
ble of Tempers to Which Tools Should.be Drawn — To Temper Old 
Files— The Emery Wheel— Its Uses — Speed of Emery Wheels. . .140-150 

SECTION VI 

PRODUCTION OF SLACK COOPERAGE STOCK 

General Remarks — Production of Slack Stock — Woods Chiefly Used for 
Slack Cooperage — Total Stock Produced for Past Three Years — 
Value and Average Value of Stock Produced — Slack Barrel Stave 
Production — Quantity of Staves Manufactured by Kinds of Wood — 
Slack Barrel Heading Production — Quantity of Heads Manufac- 
tured by Kinds of Wood — Slack Barrel Hoop Production — Quan- 
tity of Hoops Manufactured by Kinds of Wood — Review of Forest 
Report 151-171 

SECTION VII 

HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 

Harvesting Raw Material — Time of Felling — Woods Management — The 
Difficulties of Transporting Gum — Location of Plant — Site and 
Arrangement of Mill— The Unloading Switch— The Slack Stock 
Mill , ] 72-194 



CONTENTS xiii 

SECTION VIII 

SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 

General Remarks — The Waste Problem — The Bolting Room — The Cut- 
off Saw — The Drag-saw — The Drop-feed Circular Cut-off Saw — 
The Bolting Saw — Stave and Heading Bolts — Steam-boxes for 
Stave Bolts— The Dutch T oven or Bulldog Furnace — The Stave Bolt 
Equalizing Machine — Cracks in Equalizer Saws — The Stave-Cut- 
ting Machine — Number' of Staves per cord or Rank — The Cylinder 
Stave Saw — The Swing Cut-off Saw — Stave Piling and Air-season- 
ing — Stave Jointing — Stave Bundling or Packing — Inspection — 
Dead Cull Staves — Standard Specifications and Grades 195-254 

SECTION IX 

SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 

General Remarks — Bolting Out — The Heading Saw — The Horizontal 
Hand-feed Heading Saw — Seasoning — What Seasoning Is — Manner 
of Evaporation of Water — Distribution of Water in Wood — Rapid- 
ity of Evaporation— Effects of Moisture on Wood — Shrinkage of 
Wood — Difficulties of Drying Wood — Unsolved Problems in Kiln- 
drying — Kiln-drying — Planing — Jointing — Turning or Circling — 
Bundling or Packing — Standard Specifications and Grades 255-300 

SECTION X 

SLACK HOOP MANUFACTURE 

General Remarks — The Patent Hoop — Different Methods of Manufac- 
ture — The Sawn Process — The Cutting Process — The Boiling Vat — 
The Hoop Cutter — The Hoop Planer — The Hoop-pointing and Lap- 
ping Machine — The Hoop-coiling Machine — Piling on Yard — Sea- 
soning — Standard Specifications and Grades — Head Liners. .. .301-325 

SECTION XI 

MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 

General Remarks — Shop Management — Office Management — Econo- 
mies 326-345 

SECTION XII 

USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 

Weights of Slack Cooperage Stock — Capacity of Cars — Legal Fruit 
Barrel in New York State — Legal Fruit Barrel in Indiana — Notes 



xiv CONTENTS 

and Information on Belting — Rules for Calculating Speed of Pul- 
leys — Rules for Calculating Power of Belting — Horsepower of 
Leather Belts — Babbitt Metal and Babbitting — Glue to Resist 
Moisture — Receipts for Soldering Fluids — Useful Rules and Infor- 
mation on Water — Useful Rules and Information on Steam — Duty 
of Steam Engines — Weight and Comparative Fuel Value of Wood 
— To Place an Engine on the Dead Centre — Horsepower of an En- 
gine — Horsepower Constants — Useful Numbers for Rapid Calcula- 
tion — Decimal Equivalents — Table of Gauges — Table of Alloys — 
Government or Treasury Whitewash — Power Equivalents — Hy- 
draulic Equivalents — Mensuration — Memorandum 346-416 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. SEC. PAGE 

1. Board of pine I 12 

2. Wood of spruce I 13 

3. Group of fibres from pine wood. I 14 

4. Block of oak I 25 

5. Board of oak I 26 

6. Cross-section of oak highly magnified I 26 

7. Highly magnified fibres of wood I 28 

8. Isolated fibres and cells of wood I 30 

9. Cross-section of basswood I 31 

10. Spiral grain in wood I 59 

11. Alternating spiral grain in cypress I 59 

12. Wavy grain in beech I 60 

13. Section of wood showing position of the grain at base 

of limb I 61 

14. Cross-section of a group of- wood fibres I 64 

15. Isolated fibres of wood I 64 

16. Orientation of wood samples I 65 

17. Work of ambrosia beetles in tulip or yellow poplar wood II 73 

18. Work of ambrosia beetles in oak II 73 

19. Work of round-headed and flat-headed borers in pine. . . II 75 

20. Work of timber worms in oak II 76 

21. Work of powder post beetles in hickory poles II 78 

22. Work of powder post beetles in hickory poles II 78 

23. Work of powder post beetles in hickory handles, etc... II 79 

24. Work of round-headed borer in white pine staves II 84 

25. View of land burned over every year Ill 89 

26. Effects of a forest fire Ill 91 

27. Damage done by a fire Ill 94 

28. Automatic saw sharpener IV 110 

29. Hand sharpener and gummer IV 111 

30. Adjustable hand swage IV 113 

31. Side-dresser or swage shaper IV 114 

32. Tools for hammering, etc IV 115 

33. Circular saw set IV 115 

34. Hand saw sets IV 116 

35. Saw gauge IV 116 

36. Cylinder saw gauge IV 117 

37. Bench vise or clamp IV 117 

38. Cylinder saw gummer or sharpener IV 118 



xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG SEC. PAGE 

39. Automatic knife sharpener or grinder IV 119 

39y 2 - Knife-balancing scales . IV 119 

40. Straight bevel grinding of knife IV 120 

41. Concave bevel grinding of knife IV 120 

42. Concave grinding of stave cutter knife IV 121 

43. Back grinding of stave cutter knife IV 121 

44. Forest regions of the United States VII 177 

45. A typical hardwood forest VII 179 

46. Hauling logs VII 180 

47. Waste in woods operations '. VII 181 

48. Good and bad tree cutting VII 182 

49. A large hemlock VII 183 

50. A large red gum VII 184 

51. A large cottonwood VII 185 

52. Second-growth red gum, etc VII 186 

53. A cypress slough in the dry season VII 187 

54. A tupelo gum slough VII 188 

55. Peeled red gum logs seasoning in the woods VII 189 

56. Endless chain log haul-up VIII 202 

57. Steam kicker or log unloader VIII 203 

58. Direct-acting steam drag saw VIII 204 

59. Drop feed circular cut-off saw. .-. VIII 205 

60. Drop-feed circular cut-off saw in action, right-hand view VIII 206 

61. Drop-feed circular cut-off saw in action, left-hand view. VIII 207 

62. Overhead style steam dog VIII 208 

63. Floor-level style steam dog VIII 210 

64. Plan of horizontal bolting saw VIII 214 

65. A log before being sawn into bolts VIII 216 

66. A bolt before being quartered VIII 216 

67. A bolt, showing method of quartering VIII 216 

68. A properly quartered stave bolt VIII 217 

69. Stave bolt or flitch VIII 217 

70. Stave bolt, showing method of cutting VIII 217 

71. Heading bolt VIII 218 

72. Heading bolt, showing method of sawing VIII 218 

73. Dutch oven or bulldog furnace VIII 227 

74. Stave bolt equalizer . . . VIII 228 

75. Stave cutter VIII 232 

76. Cylinder stave saw VIII 236 

77. Swing cut-off saw VIII 239 

78. Stave piling sheds and log pond VIII 240 

79. Slack stave foot-power jointer VIII 243 

80. Slack stave "power" jointer VIII 244 

81. Stave jointer knife VIII 247 



LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 

FIG. SEC. PAGE 

82. Stave packer or bundling machine VIII 249 

83. Pendulous swing heading saw IX 259 

84. Horizontal heading saw IX 261 

84%. Horizontal heading saw IX 262 

85. Heading planer IX 287 

86. Heading jointer IX 288 

87. Heading turner IX 293 

88. Method of determining circle of heading saws IX 294 

89. Proper bevel for slack heading IX 296 

90. Heading press IX 297 

91. Results of poor bundling IX 298 

92. End section of "patent" hoop X 304 

93. Short-log sawmill X 308 

94. Self-feed gang ripsaw X 308 

95. Self-feed gang ripsaw X 309 

96. The "Trautman" sawn-hoop machine X 310 

97. The "Kettenring" sawn-hoop machine X 311 

98. Hoop bar chuck-pointing machine X 311 

99. Hand-feed hoop-lapping machine X 312 

100. The hoop cutter X 316 

101. The hoop cutter X 317 

102. The automatic triple hoop planer X 318 

103. The automatic hoop-pointing and lapping machine X 319 

104. "The Ward" hoop-coiling machine X 320 

105. "The Defiance" hoop-coiling machine X 321 

106. The head liner machine X 325 



SECTION I 



TIMBER 



TIMBER 



CHARACTEKISTICS AND PROPERTIES 

GENEKAL KEMAKKS 

Although wood has been in use so long and so uni- 
versally, there still exists a remarkable lack of knowl- 
edge regarding its nature, not only among ordinary 
workmen, but among those who might be expected to 
know its properties. As a consequence the practice is 
often faulty and wasteful in the manner of its use. Ex- 
perience has been almost the only teacher, and notions — 
sometimes right, sometimes wrong — rather than well- 
substantiated facts, lead" the workman. One reason for 
this imperfect knowledge lies in the fact that wood is 
not a homogeneous material, but a complicated struc- 
ture, and so variable that one piece will behave very dif- 
ferently from another, although cut from the same tree. 
Not only does the wood of one species differ from that of 
another, but the butt cut differs from that of the top log, 
the heartwood from the sapwood, the wood of the quickly 
grown sapling of the abandoned field, from that of the 
slowly grown old monarch of the forest. Even the man- 
ner in which the tree was sawn and the condition in 
which the wood was cut and kept influence its behavior 
and quality. It is, therefore, extremely difficult to study 
the material for the purpose of establishing general 
laws. The experienced woodsman will look for straight- 
grained, long-fibred woods, with the absence of disturb- 
ing resinous and coloring matter, knots, etc., and will 
quickly distinguish the more porous red or black oaks 
from the less porous white species, Quercus-alba. That 



4 COOPERAGE 

the inspection should have regard to defects and un- 
healthy conditions (often indicated by color) goes with- 
out saying, and such inspection is usually practised. 
That knots, even the smallest, are defects, which for 
some uses condemn the material altogether, needs hardly 
to be mentioned. But that season-checks, even those 
that have closed by subsequent shrinkage, remain ele- 
ments of weakness is not so readily appreciated, yet 
there cannot be any doubt of this, since this, the inti- 
mate connections of the wood fibres when once inter- 
rupted are never re-established. The careful woods- 
foreman and stock manufacturer, therefore, is concerned 
as to the manner in which his timber is treated after the 
felling, for, according to the more or less careful season- 
ing of it, the season-checks — not altogether avoidable — 
are more or less abundant. This is practically recog- 
nized by sawing the stave and heading bolt at least two 
inches longer than is actually required, in order to elim- 
inate these season-checks, should there be any, when the 
bolt is sawn or cut into staves and heading, and by split- 
ting or quartering the cooperage stock, more or less, in 
the woods and seasoning it partly shaped. There is no 
country where wood is more lavishly used and crimi- 
nally neglected than in the United States, and none in 
which nature has more bountifully provided for all rea- 
sonable requirements. In the absence of proper efforts 
to secure reproduction, the most valuable kinds are rap- 
idly being decimated, and the necessity of a more ra- 
tional and careful use of what remains is clearly appar- 
ent. By greater care in selection, however, not only can 
the duration of the supply be extended, but more satis- 
factory results will accrue from its practice. The struc- 
ture of wood affords the only reliable means of distin- 
guishing the different kinds. Color, weight, smell and 
other appearances, which are often direct or indirect re- 



TIMBER 5 

suits of structure, may be helpful in this distinction, but 
cannot be relied upon entirely. In addition, structure 
underlies nearly all the technical properties of this im- 
portant product, and furnishes an explanation why one 
piece differs as to these properties from another. Struc- 
ture explains why oak is heavier, stronger and tougher 
than pine ; why it is harder to saw and plane, and why it 
is so much more difficult to season without injury. From 
its less porous structure alone it is evident that a piece 
of young and thrifty oak is stronger than the porous wood 
of an old or stunted tree, or that a Georgia or long-leafed 
pine excels white pine in weight and strength. Keep- 
ing especially in mind the arrangement and direction of 
the fibres of wood, it is clear at once why "knots and 
cross-grain" interfere with the strength of timber. It is 
due to the structural peculiarities that "honeycombing" 
occurs in rapid seasoning, that l ' checks or cracks ' ' extend 
radially and follow pith rays, that tangent or bastard 
stock shrinks and warps more than that which is quarter- 
sawn. These same peculiarities enable oak to take a bet- 
ter finish than basswood or coarse-grained pine. 

CLASSES OF TREES 

The timber of the United States is furnished by three 
well-defined classes of trees: the needle-leaved, naked- 
seeded conifers, such as pine, cedar, etc., the broad-leaved 
trees, such as oak, poplar, etc., and to an inferior extent 
by the (one-seed leaf) palms, yuccas, and their allies, 
which last are confined to the most southern parts of the 
country. Broad-leaved trees are also known as decidu- 
ous trees, although, especially in warm countries, many 
of them are evergreen, while the conifers are commonly 
termed "evergreens," although the larch, bald cypress 
and others shed their leaves every fall, and even the 
names "broad-leaved" and "coniferous," though per- 



6 COOPERAGE 

haps the most satisfactory, are not at all exact, for the 
conifer "ginkgo" has broad leaves and bears no cones. 
Among the woodsmen, the woods of broad-leaved trees 
are known as "hardwoods," though poplar is as soft as 
pine, and the "coniferous woods" are "softwoods," not- 
withstanding that yew ranks high in hardness even when 
compared to "hardwoods." Both in the number of dif- 
ferent kinds of trees or species and still more in the im- 
portance of their product the conifers and broad-leaved 
trees far excel the palms and their relatives. In the 
manner of growth both conifers and broad-leaved trees 
behave alike, adding each year a new layer of wood, which 
covers the old wood in all parts of the stem and limbs. 
Thus the trunk continues to grow in thickness through- 
out the life of the tree by additions (annual rings), which 
in temperate climates are, barring accidents, accurate 
records of the tree. With the palms and their relatives 
the stem remains generally of the same diameter, the 
tree of a hundred years old being as thick as it was at 
ten years, the growth of these being only at the top. Even 
where a peripheral increase takes place, as in the yuccas, 
the wood is not laid on in well-defined layers; the struc- 
ture remains irregular throughout. Though alike in 
their manner of growth, and therefore similar in their 
general make-up, conifers and broad-leaved trees differ 
markedly in the details of their structure and the char- 
acter of their wood. The wood of all conifers is very 
simple in its structure, the fibres composing the main 
part of the wood being all alike and their arrangement 
regular. The wood of broad-leaved trees is complex in 
structure; it is made up of different kinds of cells and 
fibres and lacks the regularity of arrangement so notice- 
able in the conifers. This difference is so great that in a 
study of wood structure it is best to consider the two 
kinds separately. In this country the great variety of 



TIMBER 7 

woods, and of useful woods at that, often makes the mere 
distinction of the kind or species of tree most difficult. 
Thus there are at least eight pines of the thirty-five 
native ones in the market, some of which so closely re- 
semble each other in their minute structure that they can 
hardly be told apart, and yet they differ in quality and 
are often mixed or confounded in the trade. Of the 
thirty-six oaks, of which probably not less than six or 
eight are marketed, we can readily recognize by means 
of their minute anatomy at least two tribes — the white 
and black oaks. The same is true as to the eleven kinds 
of hickory, the six kinds of ash, etc., etc. The list of 
names of all trees indigenous to the United States, as 
enumerated by the Forest Service, is 495 in number, the 
designation of ' ' tree ' ' being applied to all woody plants 
which produce naturally in their native habitat one 
main, erect stem, bearing a definite crown, no matter 
what size they attain. 

WOOD OF CONIFEROUS TKEES 

Examining a smooth cross-section or end face of a 
well-grown log of Georgia pine, we distinguish an envel- 
ope of reddish, scaly bark, a small whitish pith at the 
centre, and between these the wood in a great number 
of concentric rings. 

BARK AND PITH 

The bark of a pine stem is thickest and roughest near 
the base, decreases rapidly in thickness from one and 
one-half inches at the stump to one-tenth inch near the 
top of the tree, and forms in general about ten to fifteen 
per cent, of the entire trunk. The pith is quite thick, 
usually one-eighth to one-fifth inch in southern species, 
though much less so in white pine, and is very thin, one- 
fifteenth to one-twenty-fifth inch in. cypress, cedar and 
larch. In woods with a thick pith, this latter is finest at 



8 COOPERAGE 

the stump, grows rapidly thicker upward, and becoming 
thinner again in the crown and limbs, the first one to 
five rings adjoining it behaving similarly. 

SAP AND HEAKTWOOD 

A zone of wood next to the bark, one to three inches 
wide and containing thirty to fifty or more annual or 
concentric rings, is of a lighter color. This is the sap- 
wood, the inner darker part of the log being the heart- 
wood. In the former many cells are active and store up 
starch and otherwise assist in the life processes of the 
tree, although only the last or outer layer of cells forms 
the growing part, and the true life of the tree. In the 
heartwood all the cells are lifeless cases, and serve only 
the mechanical function of keeping the tree from break- 
ing under its own great weight or from being laid low by 
the winds. The darker color of the heartwood is due 
to infiltration of chemical substances into the cell walls, 
but the cavities of the cells in pine are not filled up, as is 
sometimes believed, nor do their walls grow thicker, nor 
are their walls any more liquefied than in the sapwood. 
Sapwood varies in width and in the number of rings 
which it contains even in different parts of the same 
tree. The same year's growth which is sapwood in one 
part of a disk may be heartwood in another. Sapwood 
is widest in the main part of the stem and varies often 
within considerable limits and without apparent regular- 
ity. Generally it becomes narrower toward the top and 
in the limbs, its width varying with the diameter, and 
being least in a given disk on the side which has the 
shortest radius. Sapwood of old and stunted pines is 
composed of more rings than that of young and thrifty 
specimens. Thus in a pine two hundred and fifty years 
old a layer of wood or annual ring does not change 
from sapwood to heartwood until seventy or eighty years 



TIMBER 9 

after it is formed, while in a tree one hundred years old 
or less it remains sapwood only from thirty to sixty 
years. The width of the sapwood varies considerably 
for different kinds of pine. It is small for long-leaf 
and white pine and great for loblolly and Norway pines. 
Occupying the peripheral part of the trunk, the propor- 
tion which it forms of the entire mass of the stem is 
always great. Thus even in old trees of long-leaf pine 
the sapwood forms about forty per cent, of the mer- 
chantable log, while in the loblolly and in all young 
trees the bulk of the wood is sapwood. 

THE ANNUAL OR YEARLY RING 

The concentric annual or yearly rings which appear 
on the end face of a log are cross-sections of so many 
thin layers of wood. Each such layer forms an envelope 
around its inner neighbor, and is in turn covered by the 
adjoining layer without, so that the whole stem is built 
up of a series of thin, hollow cylinders, or rather cones. 
A new layer of wood is formed each season, covering the 
entire stem, as well as all the living branches. The 
thickness of this layer or the width of the yearly ring 
varies greatly in different trees, and also in different 
parts of the same tree. In a normally grown thrifty 
pine log the rings are widest near the pith, growing 
more and more narrower toward the bark. Thus the 
central twenty rings in a disk of an old long-leaf pine 
may each be one-eighth to one- sixth inch wide, while the 
twenty rings next to the bark may average only one- 
thirtieth inch. In our forest trees, rings of one-half 
inch in width occur only near the centre in disks of very 
thrifty trees, of both conifers and hardwoods. One- 
twelfth inch represents good thrifty growth, and the min- 
imum width of %oo inch is often seen in stunted spruce 



10 COOPERAGE 

and pine. The average width of rings in well-grown 
old white pine will vary from one-twelfth to one-eight- 
eenth inch, while in the slower growing long-leaf pine 
it may be one-twenty-fifth to one-thirtieth of an inch. 
The same layer of wood is widest near the stump in very 
thrifty young trees, especially if grown in the open park ; 
but in old forest trees the same year's growth is wider 
at the upper part of the tree, being narrowest near the 
stump, and often also near the very tip of the stem. 
Generally the rings are widest near the centre, growing 
narrower toward the bark. In logs from stunted trees 
the order is often reversed, the interior rings being thin 
and the outer rings widest. Frequently, too, zones or 
bands of very narrow rings, representing unfavorable 
periods of growth, disturb the general regularity. Few 
trees, even among pines, furnish a log with truly circular 
cross-section. Usually it is an oval, and at the stump 
commonly quite an irregular figure. Moreover, even in 
very regular or circular disks the pith is rarely in the 
centre, and frequently one radius is conspicuously longer 
than its opposite, the width of some rings, if not all, 
being greater on one side than on the other. This is 
nearly always so in the limbs, the lower radius exceed- 
ing the upper. In extreme cases, especially in the limbs, 
a ring is frequently conspicuous on one side, and almost 
or entirely lost to view on the other. Where the rings 
are extremely narrow, the dark portion of the ring is 
often wanting, the color being quite uniform and light. 
The greater regularity or irregularity of the annual rings 
has much to do with the technical qualities of the timber. 

SPRING AND SUMMER-WOOD 

Examining the rings more closely, it is noticed that 
each ring is made up of an inner, softer, light-colored 



TIMBER 11 

and an outer, or peripheral, firmer and darker-colored 
portion. Being formed in the forepart of the season, 
the inner, light-colored part is termed spring-wood, the 
outer, darker-portioned being the summer-wood of the 
ring. Since the latter is very heavy and firm, it deter- 
mines to a very large extent the weight and strength 
of the wood, and as its darker color influences the shade 
of color of the entire piece of wood, this color effect 
becomes a valuable aid in distinguishing heavy and 
strong from light and soft pine wood. In most hard 
pines, like the long-leaf, the dark summer-wood appears 
as a distinct band, so that the yearly ring is composed 
of two sharply defined bands — an inner, the " spring- 
wood," and an outer, the "summer-wood." But in some 
cases, even in hard pines, and normally in the woods of 
white pines, the spring-wood passes gradually into the 
darker summer-wood, so that a darkly denned line occurs 
only where the spring-wood of one ring abuts against the 
summer-wood of its neighbor. It is this clearly defined 
line which enables the eye to distinguish even the very 
narrow lines in old pines and spruces. In some cases, 
especially in the trunks of Southern pines, and normally 
on the lower side of pine limbs, there occur dark bands 
of wood in the spring-wood portion of the ring, giving 
rise to false rings, which mislead in a superficial count- 
ing of rings. In the disks cut from limbs these dark bands 
often occupy the greater part of the ring, and appear 
as "lunes," or sickle-shaped figures. The wood of these 
dark bands is similar to that of the true summer-wood. 
The cells have thick walls, but usually the compressed or 
flattened form. Normally, the summer-wood forms a 
greater proportion of the ring in the part of the tree 
formed during the period of thriftiest growth. In an 
old tree this proportion is very small in the first two to 



12 



COOPERAGE 



five rings about the pith, and also in the part next to the 
bark, the intermediate part showing a greater proportion 
of summer-wood. It is also greatest in a disk taken from 
near the stump, and decreases upward in the stem, thus 
fully accounting for the difference in weight and firm- 
ness of the wood of these different parts. In the long- 
leaf pine the summer-wood often forms scarcely ten 
per cent, of the wood in the central five rings; forty to 
fifty per cent, of the next one hundred rings ; about thirty 
per cent, of the next fifty, and only about twenty per 
cent, in the fifty rings next to the bark. It averages forty- 
five per cent, of the wood of the stump and only twenty- 
four per cent, of that of the top. Sawing the log into 
boards, the yearly rings are represented on the board 
faces of the middle board (radial sections) by narrow 
parallel stripes (see Fig. 1), an inner, lighter stripe 




Fig. 1. Board of Pine. GS, cross-section; RB, radial section, TS, 
tangential section; sw, summer-wood; spiv, spring-wood. 



TIMBER 



13 



and its outer, darker neighbor always corresponding to 
one annual ring. On the faces of the boards nearest the 
slab (tangential or bastard boards) the several years' 
growth should also appear as parallel, but much broader 
stripes. This they do if the log is short and very per- 
fect. Usually a variety of pleasing patterns is displayed 
on the boards, depending on the position of the saw cut 
and on the regularity of growth of the log. (See Fig. 1.) 
Where the cut passes through a prominence (bump or 
crook) of the log, irregular, concentric circlets and ovals 
are produced, and on almost all tangent boards arrow 
or V-shaped forms occur. 

ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE 

Holding a well-smoothed disk or cross-section one- 
eighth inch thick toward the light, it is readily seen that 
pine wood is a very porous structure. If viewed with 






Fig. 2. Wood of Spruce. 1, natural size; 2, small part of one ring magni- 
fied 100 times. The vertical tubes are wood fibres, in this case all 
"tracheids." m, medullary or pith ray; n, transverse tracheids of pith 
ray:' a, b, and c, bordered pits of the tracheids, more enlarged. 



14 



COOPERAGE 



a strong magnifier, the little tubes, especially in the 
spring-wood of the rings, are easily distinguished, and 
their arrangement in regular, straight, radial rows is 
apparent. Scattered through the summer-wood portion 
of the rings numerous irregular grayish dots 
(the resin ducts) disturb the uniformity and 
regularity of the structure. Magnified one 
hundred times, a piece of spruce, which is 
similar to pine, presents a picture like that 
shown in Fig. 2. Only short pieces of the 
tubes or cells of which the wood is composed 
are represented in the picture. The total 
length of these fibres is from one-twentieth 
to one-fifth inch, being smallest near the pith, 
and is fifty to one hundred times as great 
as their width. (See Fig. 3.) They are 
tapered and closed at their ends, polygonal 
or rounded and thin-walled, with large cavity, 
lumen or internal space in the spring-wood, 
and thick-walled and flattened radially, with 
the internal space or lumen much reduced in 
the summer-wood. (See right-hand portion 
of Fig. 2.) This flattening together with 
the thicker walls of the cells, which reduces 
the lumen, causes the greater firmness and 
darker color of the summer-wood. There 
is more material in the same volume. As 
shown in the figure, the tubes, cells, or 
"tracheids" are decorated on their walls 
by circlet-like structures, the " bordered 
pits," sections of which are seen more 

3. Group of Fibres from Pine Wood. Partly schematic. The little 
circles are "border pits." (See Fig. 2, a-c.) The transverse rows of 
square pits indicate the places of contact of these fibres and the cells 
of the neighboring pith rays. Magnified about 25 times. 



IIIM'i 



TIMBER 15 

magnified at a, b and c, Fig. 2. These pits are in the 
nature of pores, covered by very thin membranes, and 
serve as waterways between the cells or tracheids. The 
dark lines on the side of the smaller piece (1, Fig. 2) 
appear when magnified (in 2, Fig. 2) as tiers of eight 
to ten rows of cells, which run radially (parallel to the 
rows of tubes or tracheids), and are seen as bands on 
the radial face and as rows of pores on the tangential 
face. These bands or tiers of cell rows are the medullary 
rays or pith rays, and are common to all our lumber 
woods. In the pines and other conifers they are quite 
small, but they can readily be seen even without a mag- 
nifier. If a radial surface of split-wood (not smoothed) 
is examined, the entire radial face will be seen almost 
covered with these tiny structures, which appear as fine 
but conspicuous cross-lines. As shown in Fig. 2, the 
cells of the medullary or pith rays are smaller and very 
much shorter than the wood fibre or tracheids, and their 
long axis is at right angles to that of the fibre. In pines 
and spruces the cells of the upper and lower rows of 
each tier or pith ray have "bordered" pits, like those of 
the wood fibre or tracheids proper, but the cells of the 
intermediate rows and of all rows in the rays of cedars, 
etc., have only " simple" pits, i. e., pits devoid of the 
saucer-like "border" or rim. In pine, many of the pith 
rays are larger than the majority, each containing a 
whitish line, the horizontal resin duct, which though much 
smaller, resembles the vertical ducts seen on the cross- 
section. The larger vertical resin ducts are best observed 
on removal of the bark from a fresh piece of white pine 
cut in winter, where they appear as conspicuous white 
lines, extending often for many inches up and down the 
stem. Neither the horizontal nor the vertical resin ducts 



16 COOPEEAGE 

are vessels or cells, but are openings between cells, i. e., 
intercellular spaces, in which the resin accumulates, 
freely oozing out when the ducts of a fresh piece of sap- 
wood are cut. They are present only in our coniferous 
woods, and even here they are restricted to pine, spruce 
and larch, and are normally absent in fir, cedar, cypress 
and yew. Altogether, the structure of coniferous wood 
is very simple and regular, the bulk being made up of 
the small fibres called tracheids, the disturbing elements 
of pith rays and resin ducts being insignificant, and hence 
the great uniformity and great technical value of conifer- 
ous woods. 

LIST OF THE MOEE IMPORTANT CONIFEROUS WOODS 

CEDAR. — Light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture; 
sap and heartwood distinct, the former lighter, the 
latter a dull grayish brown or red. The wood seasons 
rapidly, shrinks and checks but little, and is very 
durable. Used like soft pine, but owing to its great 
durability preferred for shingles, etc. Small sizes 
used for posts, ties, etc. Cedars usually occur scat- 
tered, but they form in certain localities forests of 
considerable extent. 

a. White Cedars. — Heartwood a light grayish color. 

1. White Cedar (Thuya occidentalis) (AREORviTiE). 
Scattered along streams and lakes, frequently covering 
extensive swamps; rarely large enough for lumber, but 
commonly used for posts, ties, etc. Maine to Minnesota 
and northward. 

2. Canoe Cedar (Thuya gig ant ea) (Red Cedar of the 
West). In Oregon and Washington a very large tree, 
covering extensive swamps; in the mountains much 
smaller, skirting the water courses ; an important lumber 



TIMBER 17 

tree. Washington to Northern California and eastward 
to Montana. 

3. White Cedae (Chamcecyparis thyoides). Medium- 
sized tree, wood very light and soft. Along the coast 
from Maine to Mississippi. 

4. White Cedak (Chamcecyparis Lawsoniana) (Poet 
Orford Cedar, Oregon Cedar, Lawson's Cypress, Ginger 
Pine). A very large tree, extensively cut for lumber; 
heavier and stronger than the preceding. Along the coast 
line of Oregon. 

5. White Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) (Incense 
Cedar). A large tree, abundantly scattered among pine 
and fir ; wood fine-grained. Cascades and Sierra Nevada 
of Oregon and California. 

b. Red Cedars. — Heartwood red. 

6. Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) (Savin Juni- 
per). Similar to white cedar, but of somewhat finer 
texture. Used in cabinetwork, for cooperage, for veneers, 
and especially for lead pencils, for which purpose alone 
several million feet are cut each year. A small to 
medium-sized tree scattered through the forests, or in 
the West sparsely covering extensive areas (cedar 
brakes). The red cedar is the most widely distributed 
conifer of the United States, occurring from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific, and from Florida to Minnesota, but attains 
a suitable size for lumber only in the Southern, and more 
especially the Gulf States. 

7. Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens). Wood in its 
quality and uses like white cedar, the narrow sapwood 
whitish ; the heartwood light red, soon turning to brown- 
ish red when exposed. A very large tree, limited to the 
coast ranges of California, and forming considerable for- 
ests, which are rapidly being converted into lumber. 



18 COOPERAGE 

CYPRESS. 

8. Cypress (Taxodium distichum) (Bald Cypress; 
Black, White, and Red Cypress). Wood in its appear- 
ance, quality, and uses similar to white cedar. "Black 
cypress" and "white cypress" are heavy and light forms 
of the same species. The cypress is a large, deciduous 
tree, occupying much of the swamp and overflow land 
along the coast and rivers of the Southern States. 

FIR — This name is frequently applied to wood and to 
trees which are not fir; most commonly to spruce, 
but also, especially in English markets, to pine. It 
resembles spruce, but is easily distinguished from it, 
as well as from pine and larch, by the absence of 
resin ducts. Quality, uses, and habits similar to 
spruce. Used extensively for fish and oil cooper- 
age on the Pacific Coast. 

9. Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea). A medium-sized 
tree scattered throughout the northern pineries; cut in 
lumber operations whenever of sufficient size, and sold 
with pine or spruce. Minnesota to Maine and north- 
ward. 

10. White Fir (Abies grandis and Abies concolor). 
Medium to very large-sized tree, forming an important 
part of most of the Western mountain forests, and fur- 
nishing much of the lumber of the respective regions. 
The former occurs from Vancouver to Central California 
and eastward to Montana; and the latter from Oregon 
to Arizona and eastward to Colorado and New Mexico. 

11. White Fir (Abies amabalis). Good-sized tree, 
often forming extensive mountain forests. Cascade 
Mountains of Washington and Oregon.. 

12. Red Fir (Abies nobilis) (not to be confounded with 
Douglas spruce. See No. 37). Large to very large tree, 



TIMBEE 19 

forming extensive forests on the slope of the mountains 
between 3,000 and 4,000 feet elevation. Cascade Moun- 
tains of Oregon. 

13. Red Fie (Abies magnified) . Very large tree, form- 
ing forests about the base of Mount Shasta. Sierra 
Nevada of California, from Mount Shasta southward. 

HEMLOCK.— Light to medium weight, soft, stiff but 
brittle, commonly cross-grained, rough and splin- 
tery; sapwood and heartwood not well denned; the 
wood of a light reddish-gray color, free from resin 
ducts, moderately durable, shrinks and warps consid- 
erably, wears rough, retains nails firmly. Used prin- 
cipally for dimension stuff and timbers. Hemlocks 
are medium to large-sized trees, commonly scattered 
among broad-leaved trees and conifers, but often 
forming forests of almost pure growth. 

14. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Medium-sized tree, 
furnishes almost all the hemlock of the Eastern market. 
Maine to Wisconsin; also following the Alleghanies 
southward to Georgia and Alabama. 

15. Hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) . Large-sized tree, 
wood claimed to be heavier and harder than the Eastern 
form and of superior quality. Washington to California 
and eastward to Montana. 

LARCH OR TAMARACK.— Wood like the best of hard 
pine both in appearance, quality, and uses, and owing 
to its great durability somewhat preferred in ship- 
building, for telegraph poles, and railroad ties. In 
its structure it resembles spruce. The larches are 
deciduous trees, occasionally covering considerable 
areas, but usually scattered among other conifers. 

16. Tamaeack (Larix Americana) (Hackmatack). 



20 COOPERAGE 

Medium-sized tree, often covering swamps, in which case 
it is smaller and of poor quality. Maine to Minnesota, 
and southward to Pennsylvania. 

17. Tamakack (L. occidentalis). Large-sized trees, 
scattered, locally abundant. Washington and Oregon to 
Montana. 

PINE. — Very variable, very light and soft in "soft" 
pine, such as white pine ; of medium weight to heavy 
and quite hard in "hard" pine, of which long-leaf or 
Georgia pine is the extreme form. Usually it is stiff, 
quite strong, of even texture, and more or less res- 
• inous. The sapwood is yellowish white; the heart- 
wood, orange brown. Pine shrinks moderately, sea- 
sons rapidly and without much injury ; it works eas- 
ily ; is never too hard to nail (unlike oak or hickory) ; 
it is mostly quite durable, and if well seasoned is 
not subject to the attacks of boring insects. The 
heavier the wood, the darker, stronger, and harder 
it is and the more it shrinks and checks. Pine is 
used more extensively than any other kind of wood. 
It is the principal wood in common carpentry, as 
well as in all heavy construction, bridges, trestles, 
etc. It is also used in almost every other wood in- 
dustry : for spars, masts, planks, and timbers in ship- 
building ; in car and wagon construction ; in cooper- 
age, for crates and boxes ; in furniture work, for toys 
and patterns, water pipes, excelsior, etc., etc. Pines 
are usually large trees with few branches, the - 
straight, cylindrical, useful stem forming by far the 
greatest part of the tree. They occur gregariously, 
forming vast forests, a fact which greatly facilitates 
their exploitation. Of the many special terms applied 



TIMBER 21 

to pine as lumber, denoting sometimes differences 
in quality, the following deserve attention: 

"White pine," "pumpkin pine," "soft pine" in 
the Eastern markets refer to the wood of the white 
pine (Pinus strobus), and on the Pacific Coast to 
that of the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana). 

"Yellow pine" is applied in the trade to all the 
Southern lumber pines; in the Northeast it is also 
applied to the pitch pine (P. rigida) ; in the West 
it refers mostly to the bull pine (P. ponder osa). 

Yellow long-leaf pine, "Georgia pine," chiefly 
used in advertisement, refers to the long-leaf pine 
(P. palustris). 

a. Soft Pines. 

18. White Pine (Pinus strobus). Large to very large- 
sized tree. For the last fifty years the most important 
timber tree of the Union, furnishing the best quality of 
soft pine. Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New Eng- 
land, along the Alleghanies to Georgia. 

19. Sugae Pine (Pinus lambertiana). A very large 
tree, together with Abies concolor forming extensive for- 
ests. Important lumber tree. Oregon to California. 

20. White Pine (Pinus monticolo). A large tree, at 
home in Montana, Idaho, and the Pacific States. Most 
common and locally used in Northern Idaho. 

21. White Pine (Pinus flexilis). A small tree, form- 
ing mountain forests of considerable extent and locally 
used. Eastern Rocky Mountain slopes, Montana to New 
Mexico. 

b. Haed Pines. 

22. Long-Leaf Pine (Pinus palustris) (Geoegia Pine, 
Yellow Pine, Long-Steaw Pine, etc.). Large tree. 



22 COOPEEAGE 

Forms extensive forests and furnishes tile hardest and 
strongest pine lumber in the market. Coast region from 
North Carolina to Texas. 

23. Bull Pine (Pinus ponderosa) (Yellow Pine). 
Medium to very large-sized tree, forming extensive for- 
ests in Pacific and Rocky Mountain regions. Furnishes 
most of the hard pines of the West ; sapwood wide ; wood 
very variable. 

24. Loblolly Pine (Pinus tceda) (Slash Pine, Old 
Field Pine, Rosemary Pine, Sap Pine, Short-Straw 
Pine, etc.). Large-sized tree. Forms extensive forests; 
wider-ringed, coarser, lighter, softer, with more sapwood 
than the long-leaf pine, but the two are often confounded. 
This is the common lumber pine from Virginia to 
South Carolina, and is found extensively in Arkansas 
and Texas. Southern States, Virginia to Texas and 
Arkansas. 

25. Norway Pine (Pinus resinosa). Large-sized tree, 
never forming forests, usually scattered or in small 
groves, together with white pine; largely sapwood and 
hence not durable. Minnesota to Michigan ; also in New 
England to. Pennsylvania. 

26. Short-Leaf Pine (Pinus echinata) (Slash Pine, 
Carolina Pine, Yellow Pine, Old Field Pine). Resem- 
bles loblolly pine ; often approaches in its wood the Nor- 
way pine. The common lumber pine of Missouri and 
Arkansas. North Carolina to Texas and Missouri. 

27. Cuban Pine (Pinus cubensis) (Slash Pine, Swamp 
Pine, Bastard Pine, Meadow Pine). Resembles long- 
leaf pine, but commonly has wider sapwood and coarser 
grain; does not enter the markets to any great extent. 
Along the coast from South Carolina. to Louisiana. 






TIMBER 23 

28. Bull Pine (Pinus jeffreyi) (Black Pine). Large- 
sized tree, wood resembling bull pine {Pinus ponderosa) ; 
used locally in California, replacing P. ponderosa at high 
altitudes. 

29. Black Pine (Pinus murrayana) (Lodge Pole Pine, 
Tamaeack). Rocky Mountains and Pacific regions. 

30. Pitch Pine {Pinus rigida). Along the coast from 
New York to Georgia, and along the mountains to Ken- 
tucky. 

31. Jeesey Pine (Pinus inops) (Sceub Pine). Alon 
the coast from New York to Georgia and along the moun 
tains to Kentucky. 

32. Geay Pine (Pinus oanksiana) (Sceub Pine). 
Maine, Vermont, and Michigan to Minnesota. 

REDWOOD. (See Cedae.) 

SPRUCE.— Resembles soft pine, is light, very soft, stiff, 
moderately strong, less resinous than pine; has no 
distinct heartwood, and is of whitish color. Used 
like soft pine, but also employed as resonance wood 
and preferred for paper pulp. Used for all classes 
of cooperage and woodenware on the Pacific Coast, 
taking to some extent the place of oak for wine coop- 
erage. Spruces, like pines, form extensive forests. 
They are more frugal, thrive on thinner soils, and 
bear more shade, but usually require a more humid 
climate. ''Black" and "white" spruce as applied 
by lumbermen usually refer to narrow and wide- 
ringed forms of the black spruce (Picea nigra). 

33. Black Speuce (Picea nigra). Medium-sized tree, 
forms extensive forests in Northeastern United States 
and in British America ; occurs scattered or in groves, es- 
pecially in low lands throughout the northern pineries. 



24 COOPERAGE 

Important lumber tree in Eastern United States. Maine 
to Minnesota, British America, and on the Alleghanies 
to North Carolina. 

34. White Spruce (Picea alba). Generally associated 
with the preceding. Most abundant along streams and 
lakes, grows largest in Montana and forms the most im- 
portant tree of the subarctic forest of British America. 
Northern United States from Maine to Minnesota ; also 
from Montana to Pacific, British America. 

35. White Spruce (Picea engelmanni). Medium to 
large-sized tree, forming extensive forests at elevations 
from 5,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level ; resembles the 
preceding, but occupies a different station. A very im- 
portant timber tree in the central and southern parts of 
the Rocky Mountains. Rocky Mountains from Mexico 
to Montana. 

36. Tide Land Spruce (Picea sitchensis) . A large- 
sized tree, forming an extensive coast-belt forest. Along 
the seacoast from Alaska to Central California. Used 
extensively for cooperage and woodenware in the West. 

BASTARD SPRUCE.— Spruce or fir in name, but re- 
sembling hard pine or larch in the appearance, qual- 
ity, and uses of its wood. 

37. Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga douglasii) (Yellow 
Fir, Red Fir, Oregon Pine). ' One of the most important 
trees of the Western United States ; grows very large in 
the Pacific States, to fair size in all parts of the moun- 
tains, in Colorado up to about 10,000 feet above sea level ; 
forms extensive forests, often of pure growth. Wood 
very variable, usually coarse-grained and heavy, with 
very pronounced summer-wood, hard and strong ("red" 
fir), but often fine-grained and light ("yellow" fir). It 
replaces hard pine and is especially suited to heavy con- 



TIMBER 



25 



struction. From the plains to the Pacific Ocean, from 
Mexico to British America. 

TAMARACK. (See Laech.) 

YEW. — Wood heavy, hard, extremely stiff and strong, of 
fine texture with a pale yellow sapwood, and an 
orange-red heart; seasons well and is quite dur- 
able. Yew is extensively used for archery, bows, 
turners' ware, etc. The yews form no forests, but 
occur scattered with other conifers. 

38. Yew (Taxus brevifolia). A small to medium-sized 
tree of the Pacific region. 

Wood of Broad-Leaved Teees. 

On a cross-section of oak, the same arrangement of 
pith and bark, of sapwood and heartwood, and the same 
disposition of the wood in well-defined concentric or 

annual rings occur, but the rings 
are marked by lines or rows of 
conspicuous pores or openings, 
which occupy the greater part of 
the spring-wood for each ring (see 
Fig. 4, also 6), and are, in fact, 
the hollows of vessels through 
which the cut has been made. On 
the radial section or quarter-sawn 
board the several layers appear as 
so many stripes (see Fig. 5) ; on 
the tangential section or "bas- 
tard" face patterns similar to 
pith ray; a, height; b, width, those mentioned for pine wood are 
and e, length of pith ray. observe d. But while the patterns 
in hard pine are marked by the darker summer-wood, 
and are composed of plain, alternating stripes of 




Fig. 4. Block of Oak. 

G. 8. , cross section ; R.S., ra- 
dial section; T.S , tangential 
section; m.r., medullary or 



26 



COOPERAGE 




mmmmmm 

m 

tSreP 

w 



JmM 

mm 



I" iiWm ™ tot 



w IIwJ 



m 



WmwM 





Fig. 5. Board of Oak. CS, cross-section; iuS', radial, section; TS, tan- 
gential section; v, vessels or pores, cut through; A, slight curve in log 
which appears in section as an islet. 




Fig. G. Cross-Section of Oak Magnified about 5 Times. 



TIMBER 27 

darker and lighter wood, the figures in oak (and other 
broad-leaved woods) are due chiefly to the vessels, 
those of the spring-wood in oak being the most con- 
spicuous. (See Fig. 5). So that in an oak table, the 
darker, shaded parts are the spring-wood, the lighter 
unicolored parts the summer-wood. On closer exam- 
ination of the smooth cross-section of oak, the spring- 
wood part of the ring is found to be formed in great 
part of pores; large, round, or oval openings made by 
the cut through long vessels. These are separated by 
a grayish and quite porous tissue (see Fig. 6, A), which 
continues here and there in the form of radial, often 
branched, patches (not the pith rays) into and through, 
the summer-wood to the spring-wood of the next ring. 
The large vessels of the spring L wood, occupying six to 
ten per cent, of the volume of a log in very good oak, 
and twenty-five per cent, or more in inferior and narrow- 
ringed timber, are a very important feature, since it is 
evident that the greater their share in the volume, the 
lighter and weaker the wood. They are smallest near 
the pith, and grow wider outward. They are wider in 
the stem than limb, and seem to be of indefinite length, 
forming open channels, in some cases probably as long 
as the tree itself. Scattered through the radiating gray 
patches of porous wood are vessels similar to those of 
the spring-wood, but decidedly smaller. These vessels 
are usually fewer and larger near the spring-wood, and 
smaller and more numerous in the outer portions of the 
ring. Their number and size can be utilized to distin- 
guish the oaks classed as white oaks from those classed 
as black and red oaks. They are fewer and larger in 
red oaks, smaller but much more numerous in white oaks. 
The summer-wood, except for these radial grayish 
patches, is dark colored and firm. This firm portion, di- 



28 



COOPERAGE 




vided into bodies or strands by these patches of porous 
wood, and also by fine wavy, concentric lines of short, 
thin-walled cells (see Fig. 6, A), consists of thin-walled 
fibres (see Fig. 7, B), and is the chief element of strength 

in oak wood. In good white 
oak it forms one-half or 
more of the wood, if it cuts 
like horn, and the cut sur- 
face is shiny, and of a deep 
chocolate brown color. In 
very narrow-ringed wood 
and in inferior red oak it 
is usually much reduced in 
quantity as well as quality. 
The pith rays of the oak, 
unlike those of the conifer- 
ous woods, are at least in 
part very large and con- 
spicuous. (See Fig. 4, their 
height indicated by the letter a, and their width by 
the letter b.) The large medullary rays of oak are 
often twenty and more cells wide and several hundred 
cell rows in height, which amount commonly to one or 
more inches. These large rays are conspicuous on all 
sections. They appear as long, sharp, grayish lines on 
the cross-section; as short, thick lines, tapering at each 
end, on the tangential or "bastard" face, and as broad, 
shiny bands, "the mirrors," on the radial section. In 
addition to these coarse rays, there is also a large number 
of small pith rays, which can be seen only when magni- 
fied. On the whole, the pith rays form a much larger part 
of the wood than might be supposed. In specimens of 
good white oak it has been found that they formed about 
sixteen to twenty-five per cent, of the wood. 



Fig. 7. Portion of the Firm Bodies 

of Fibres with Two Cells of 

a Small Pith Ray. mr, 

Highly magnified. 



TIMBER 29 



MINUTE STKUCTUBE 



If a well- smoothed thin disk or cross-section of oak 
(say one-sixteenth inch thick) is held np to the light, it 
looks very much like a sieve, the pores or vessels appear- 
ing as clean-cut holes. The spring-wood and gray 
patches are seen to be quite porous, but the firm bodies 
of fibres between them are dense and opaque. Examined 
with the magnifier it will be noticed that there is no such 
regularity of arrangement in straight rows as is con- 
spicuous in pine. On the contrary, great irregularity 
prevails. At the same time, while the pores are as large 
as pin holes, the cells of the denser wood, unlike those 
of pine wood, are too small to be distinguished. Studied 
with the microscope, each vessel is found to be a vertical 
row of a great number of short, wide tubes, joined end to 
end. (See Fig. 8, c.) The porous spring-wood and radial 
'gray tracts are partly composed of smaller vessels, but 
chiefly of tracheids, like those of pine, and. of shorter 
cells, the "wood parenchyma," resembling the cells of 
the medullary rays. These latter, as well as the fine con- 
centric lines mentioned as occurring in the summer-wood, 
are composed entirely of short, tube-like parenchyma 
cells, with square or oblique ends. (See Fig. 8, a and b.) 
The wood fibres proper, which form the dark, firm bodies 
referred to, are very fine, thread-like cells, one-twenty- 
fifth to one-tenth inch long, with a wall commonly so 
thick that scarcely any empty internal space or lumen 
remains. (See Figs. 8, e, and 7 B.) If, instead of oak, 
a piece of poplar or basswood (see Fig. 9) had been used 
in this study, the structure would have been found to be 
quite different. The same kinds of cell-elements, vessels, 
etc., are to be sure, present, but their combination and ar- 
rangement are different, and thus from the great variety 



30 



COOPEKAGE 



of possible combinations results the great variety of 
structure and, in consequence, of the qualities which dis- 
tinguish the wood of broad-leaved trees. The sharp dis- 
tinction of sapwood and heart- 
wood is wanting; the rings are 
not so clearly denned, the vessels 
of the wood are small, very nu- 
merous, and rather evenly scat- 
tered through the wood of the 
annual ring, so that the distinc- 
tion of the ring almost vanishes 
and the medullary or pith rays 
in poplar can be seen without be- 
ing magnified only on the radial 
section. 



LIST OF MOST IMPOETANT BEOAD- 
LEAVED TEEES (hAEDWOODs) 

Woods of complex and very 
variable structure, and therefore 
differing widely in quality, be- 
havior, and consequently in ap- 
plicability to the arts. 

ASH. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, 
stiff, quite tough, not dur- 
able in contact with soil, 
straight-grained, rough on 
the split surfaces and coarse 
in texture. The wood shrinks 
moderately, seasons with lit- 
tle injury, stands well and 
takes a good polish. In car- 




Fig. 8. Isolated Fibres and 
Cells. a, Four cells of 
wood, parenchyma; b, two 
cells from a pith ray; c, a 
single joint or cell of a ves- 
sel, the openings * leading 
into its upper and lower 
neighbors; d, tracheid; e, 
wood fibre proper. 



pentry, ash is used for stair- 
ways, panels, etc.; it is used in shipbuilding, in the 
construction of cars, wagons, etc. ; in the manufacture 



TIMBER 



31 



of farm implements, machinery, and especially of fur- 
niture of all kinds ; for cooperage, baskets, oars, tool 
handles, hoops, etc. The trees of the several species 




Fig. 9. Cross-Section of Basswood (Magnified), v, Vessels; mr, pith 

rays. 

of ash are rapid growers, of small to medium height 
with stout trunks. They form no forests, hut occur 
scattered in almost all our broad-leaved forests. 

1. White Ash (Fraxinus Americana). Medium, some- 
times large-sized tree. Basin of the Ohio, but found from 
Maine to Minnesota and Texas. 

2. Red Ash (Fraxinus pubescens). Small-sized tree. 
North Atlantic States, but extends to the Mississippi. 

3. Black Ash (Fraxinus sa.mbucifolia) (Hoop Ash, 
Ground Ash ) . Medium-sized tree, very common. Maine 
to Minnesota and southward to Alabama. 

4. Blue Ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata) . Small to 
medium-sized tree. Indiana and Illinois; occurs from 
Michigan to Minnesota and southward to Alabama. 

5. Green Ash (Fraxinus viridis). Small-sized tree. 
New York to the Rocky Mountains, and southward to 
Florida and Arizona. 

6. Oregon Ash (Fraxinus Oregana). Medium-sized 
tree. Western Washington to California. 



32 COOPERAGE ■ 

ASPEN. (See Poplar.) 

BASSWOOD. 

7. Basswood (Tilia Americana) (Lime Tree, American 
Linden, Lin, Bee Tree). Wood light, soft, stiff but not 
strong, of fine texture, and white to light brown color. 
The wood shrinks considerably in drying, works and 
stands well. It is used for cooperage, in carpentry, in 
the manufacture of furniture and woodenware, both 
turned and carved; for toys, also for panelling of car 
and carriage bodies. Medium to large-sized tree. Com- 

■ 

mon in all northern broad-leaved forests ; found through- 
out the Eastern United States. 

8. White Basswood (Tilia heterophylla). A small- 
sized tree most abundant in the Alleghany region. 

BEECH. 

9. Beech (Fagus ferruginea). Wood heavy, hard, 
stiff, strong, of rather coarse texture, white to light 
brown in color, not durable in the ground, and subject 
to the inroads of boring insects. It shrinks and checks 
considerably in drying, works and stands well and takes 
a good polish. Used extensively in slack cooperage, for 
furniture, in turnery, for handles, lasts, etc. Abroad 
it is very extensively used by the carpenter, millwright, 
and wagon maker, in turnery and wood carving. The 
beech is a medium-sized tree, common, sometimes form- 
ing forests. Most abundant in the Ohio and Mississippi 
basin, but found from Maine to Wisconsin and south- 
ward to Florida. 

BIRCH. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture ; sap- 
wood whitish, heartwood in shades of brown with 
red and yellow; very handsome, with satiny lustre, 
equalling cherry. The wood shrinks considerably 



TIMBER 33 

in drying, works well and stands well and takes a 
good polish, but is not durable if exposed. Birch 
is used extensively for hoops in cooperage; for fin- 
ishing lumber in building, in the manufacture of 
furniture, in wood turnery ; for spools, boxes, wooden 
shoes, etc. ; for shoe lasts and pegs ; for wagon hubs, 
ox yokes, etc.; also in wood carving. The birches 
are medium-sized trees, form extensive forests 
northward, and occur scattered in all broad-leaved 
forests of the Eastern United States. 

10. Cheery Birch (Betula lent a) (Black Birch, Sweet 
Birch, Mahogany Birch). Medium-sized tree, very 
common. Maine to Michigan and to Tennessee. 

11. Yellow Birch {Betula lutea) (Gray Birch). Me- 
dium-sized tree ; common. Maine to Minnesota and south- 
ward to Tennessee. 

12. Bed Birch {Betula nigra) (River Birch). Small 
to medium-sized tree ; very common ; lighter and less val- 
uable than the preceding. New England to Texas and 
Missouri. 

13. Canoe Birch {Betula papyrifera) (White Birch, 
Paper Birch). Generally a small tree; common, form- 
ing forests; wood of good quality but light. All along 
the northern boundary of the United States and north- 
ward, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 

BLACK WALNUT. (See Walnut.) 

BLUE BEECH, 

14. Blue Beech {Carpinus Caroliniana) (Hornbeam, 
Water Beech, Ironwood). Wood very heavy, hard, 
strong, very stiff, of rather fine texture, and white color ; 
not durable in the ground; shrinks and checks consid- 
erably in drying, but works well and stands well. Used 



34 COOPERAGE 

chiefly in turnery for tool handles, etc. Abroad, much 
used by mill and wheelwrights. A small tree, largest in 
the Southwest, but found in nearly all parts of the East- 
ern United States. 

BOIS D'ARC. (See Osage Orange.) 

BUCKEYE (Horse Chestnut). Wood light, soft, not 
strong, often quite tough, of fine and uniform texture 
and creamy white color. It shrinks considerably in 
drying, but works and stands well. Used for wood- 
enware, artificial limbs, paper pulp, and locally also 
for building purposes. Small-sized trees, scattered, 
never forming forests. 

15. Ohio Buckeye (JEsculus glabra) (Fetid Buckeye). 
Alleghanies, Pennsylvania to Indian Territory. 

16. Sweet Buckeye (JEsculus flava). Alleghanies, 
Pennsylvania to Texas. 

BUTTERNUT. 

17. Butternut {Juglans cinerea) (White Walnut). 
Wood very similar to black walnut, but light, quite soft, 
not strong and of light brown color. Used chiefly for 
finishing lumber, cabinet work, and cooperage. Medium- 
sized tree, largest and most common in the Ohio basin. 
Maine to Minnesota and southward to Georgia and Ala- 
bama. 

CATALPA. 

18. Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa). Wood light, soft, not 
strong, brittle, durable, of coarse texture and brown 
color. Used for ties and posts, but well suited for a great 
variety of uses. Medium-sized tree. Lower basin of the 
Ohio River, locally common. Extensively planted, and 
therefore promising to become of some importance. 



TIMBER 35 

CHERRY. 

19. Cherry (Prunus serotina). Wood heavy, hard, 
strong, of fine texture; sapwood yellowish white, heart- 
wood reddish to brown. The wood shrinks considerably 
in drying, works well and stands well, takes a good polish, 
and is much esteemed for its beauty. Cherry is chiefly 
used as a decorative finishing lumber for buildings, cars, 
and boats, also for furniture and in turnery. It is becom- 
ing too costly for many purposes for which it is naturally 
well suited. The lumber furnishing cherry of this coun- 
try, the wild black cherry (Prunus serotina), is a small 
to medium- sized tree, scattered through many of the 
broad-leaved woods of the western slope of the Alle- 
ghanies, but found from Michigan to Florida and west 
to Texas. Other species of this genus, as well as the 
hawthorns (cratoegus). and wild apple (Pyrus), are not 
commonly offered in the market. Their wood is of the 
same character as cherry, often even finer, but in small 
dimensions. 

CHESTNUT. 

20. Chestnut (Castanea vulgaris var. Am, eric ana) . 
Wood light, moderately soft, stiff, not strong, of coarse 
texture ; the sapwood light, the heartwood darker brown. 
It shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works eas- 
ily, stands well, and is very durable. Used in cooper- 
age, cabinet work, for railway ties, telegraph poles, and 
locally in heavy construction. Medium-sized tree. Very 
common in the Alleghanies. Occurs from Maine to Mich- 
igan and southward to Alabama. 

21. Chinquapin [Castanea pumila). A small-sized 
tree, with wood slightly heavier but otherwise similar to 
the preceding. Most common in Arkansas, but with 
nearly the same range as the chestnut. 



36 COOPERAGE 

22. Chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla). A me- 
dium-sized tree of the western ranges of California and 
Oregon. 

COFFEE TREE. 

23. Coffee Tkee (Gymnocladus canadensis) (Coffee 
Nut). Wood heavy, hard, strong, very stiff, of coarse 
texture, durable, the sapwood yellow, the heartwood red- 
dish brown; shrinks and checks considerably in drying; 
works and stands well, and takes a good polish. It is 
used to a limited extent in cabinet work. A medium to 
large-sized tree; not common. Pennsylvania to Minne- 
sota and Arkansas. 

COTTONWOOD. (See Poplar.) 

CUCUMBER TREE. (See Tulip.) 

ELM. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, very tough; moder- 
ately durable in contact with the soil ; commonly 
cross-grained, difficult to split and shape, warps and 
checks considerably in drying, but stands well if 
properly handled. The broad sapwood whitish, heart- 
wood brown, both with shades of gray and red; on 
split surfaces rough, texture coarse to fine, capable 
of high polish. Elm for years has been the principal 
wood used in slack cooperage, for staves and hoops. 
Also used in the construction of cars, wagons, etc. ; in 
boat and shipbuilding; for agricultural implements 
and machinery; in saddlery and harness work, and 
particularly in the manufacture of all kinds of fur- 
niture, where the beautiful figures, especially those 
of the tangential or bastard section, are just begin- 
ning to be duly appreciated. The elms are medium 
to large-sized trees, of fairly rapid growth, with 
stout trunk, form no forests of pure growth, but are 



TIMBER 37 

found scattered in all the broad-leaved woods of our 
country, sometimes forming a considerable portion 
of the arborescent growth. 

24. White Elm (Ulmus Americana) (American Elm, 
Water Elm). Medium to large-sized tree, common. 
Maine to Minnesota, southward to Florida and Texas. 

25. Rock Elm (Ulmus racemosa) (Cork Elm, Hickory 
Elm, White Elm, Cliff Elm). Medium to large-sized 
tree. Michigan, Ohio, from Vermont to Iowa, southward 
to Kentucky. 

26. Red Elm (Ulmus fulva) (Slippery Elm, Moose 
Elm). The red or slippery elm is not so large a tree as 
the white elm, though it occasionally attains a height of 
135 feet and a diameter of 4 feet. It grows tall and 
straight, and thrives in river valleys. The wood is heavy, 
hard, elastic, strong, moderately durable in contact with 
the soil, splits easily when green, works fairly well, and 
stands well, if properly seasoned. Careful seasoning and 
handling are essential for the best results. Trees can 
be utilized for posts when very small. When green the 
wood rots very quickly in contact with the ground. Poles 
for posts should be cut in summer and peeled and dried 
before setting. The wood becomes very tough and pliable 
when steamed, and is of value for sleigh runners and for 
ribs of canoes and skiffs. Together with white elm it is 
extensively used for staves and hoops in slack cooperage, 
and also for furniture. The thick, viscous inner bark, 
which gives the tree its descriptive name, is quite palat- 
able, slightly nutritious, and has a medicinal value. 
Found chiefly along water courses. New York to Minne- 
sota, and southward to Florida and Texas. 

27. Cedar Elm (Ulmus crassifolia). Small-sized tree, 
quite common. Arkansas and Texas. 



38 COOPERAGE 

28. Winged Elm (Uhnus alata) (Wahoo). Small- 
sized tree, locally quite common. Arkansas, Missouri 
and Eastern Virginia. 

GUM. — This general term applies to three important 
species of gum in the South, the principal one usually 
being distinguished as "red" or "sweet" gum (see 
Fig. 50) ; the next in importance being the "tupelo" 
or "bay poplar" (see Fig. 54) ; and the least of the 
trio is designated as "black" or "sour" gum. Up 
to the year 1900 little was known of gum as a wood 
for cooperage purposes, but by the continued ad- 
vance in price of the woods used, a few of the manu- 
facturers, looking into the future, saw that the sup- 
ply of the various woods in use was limited, that 
new woods would have to be sought, and gum was 
looked upon as a possible substitute, owing to its 
cheapness and abundant supply. No doubt in the 
future this wood will be used to a considerable ex- 
tent in the manufacture of both tight and slack coo- 
perage. At present gum is used quite extensively 
and with varied results in slack packages, principally 
sugar, salt, etc., and recently has been experimented 
upon for tight cooperage, principally for oil and 
syrup packages. In the manufacture of gum, unless 
the knives and saws are kept very sharp, the wood 
will break out, the corners having a tendency to split 
off; and also much difficulty has been experienced 
in seasoning and kiln-drying. 

In the past, gum, having no marketable value, has 
been left standing after logging operations, or, 
where the land has been cleared for farming, has 
been girdled and allowed to rot, and then felled and 
burned as trash. Now, however, that there is a mar- 



TIMBER 39 

ket for the timber, it will be profitable to cut the 
gum with the other hardwoods, aud as this species 
of wood is coming in for a greater share of attention 
than ever before in the cooperage world, it is well 
to make some special points of study in regard to 
manufacturing it. Most of the study of gum here- 
tofore has been concentrated on the one subject of 
drying, which requires its share of attention too, 
but at the same time there is not a point anywhere 
in the process of its manufacture, from the tree to 
the finished product, but that will furnish oppor- 
tunity for much study and experiment. 

i 
29. Red Gum (Liquidamber styraciflua) (Sweet Gum, 

Liquidamber, Bilsted). The wood is about as stiff and 
as strong as chestnut, rather heavy, it splits easily and 
is quite brash, commonly cross-grained, of fine texture, 
and has a large proportion of whitish sapwood, which 
decays rapidly when exposed to the weather; but the 
reddish-brown heartwood is quite durable, even in the 
ground. The green wood contains much water, and con- 
sequently is heavy and difficult to float, but when dry it 
is as light as basswood. The great amount of water in 
the green wood, particularly in the sap, makes it difficult 
to season by ordinary methods without warping and 
twisting. This fault can be overcome, however, by care 
and special treatment. It does not check badly, is taste- 
less and odorless, and when once seasoned swells and 
shrinks but little, unless exposed to the weather. 

RANGE OF RED GUM 

Red gum is distributed from Fairfield County, Conn., 
to Southeastern Missouri, through Arkansas and the 
Indian Territory to the valley of the Trinity River in 



40 COOPERAGE 

Texas, and eastward to the Atlantic Coast. Its commer- 
cial range is restricted, however, to the moist lands of 
the lower Ohio and Mississippi basins and of the south- 
eastern coast. It is one of the commonest timber trees 
in the hardwood bottoms and drier swamps of the South. 
It grows in mixture with ash, cottonwood and oak. (See 
Fig. 52.) It is found also to a considerable extent on the 
lower ridges and slopes of the southern Appalachians, 
but there it does not reach merchantable value and is of 
little importance. Considerable difference is found be- 
tween the growth in the upper Mississippi bottoms and 
that along the rivers on the Atlantic Coast and on the 
Gulf. In the latter regions the bottoms are lower, and 
consequently more subject to floods and to continued 
overflows. (See Fig. 54.) The alluvial deposit is also 
greater, and the trees grow considerably faster. Trees of 
the same diameter show a larger percentage of sapwood 
there than in the upper portions of the Mississippi Val- 
ley. The Mississippi Valley hardwood trees are for the 
most part considerably older, and reach larger dimen- 
sions than the timber along the coast. 

FORM OF THE EED GUM 

In the best situations red gum reaches a height of 150 
feet, and a diameter of five feet. These dimensions, how- 
ever, are unusual. The stem is straight and cylindrical, 
with dark, deeply furrowed bark, and branches often 
winged with corky ridges. In youth, while growing vig- 
orously under normal conditions, it assumes a long, regu- 
lar, conical crown, much resembling the form of a conifer. 
(See Fig. 52.) After the tree has attained its height 
growth, however, the crown becomes rounded, spreading, 
and rather ovate in shape. When growing in the forest 
the tree prunes itself readily at an early period, and 



TIMBEE 41 

forms a good length of clear stem, but it branches 
strongly after making most of its height growth. The 
mature tree is usually forked, and the place where the 
forking commences determines the number of logs in the 
tree or its merchantable length, by preventing cutting 
to a small diameter in the top. On large trees the stem 
is often not less than eighteen inches in diameter where 
the branching begins. The over-mature tree is usually 
broken and dry-topped, with a very spreading crown, in 
consequence of new branches being sent out. 

TOLEEANCE OF EED GUM 

Throughout its entire life red gum is tolerant in shade, 
there are practically no red gum seedlings under the 
dense forest cover of the bottom land, and while a good 
many may come up under the pine forest on the drier 
uplands, they seldom develop into large trees. As a rule 
seedlings appear only in clearings or in open spots in the 
forest. It is seldom that an overtopped tree is found, 
for the gum dies quickly if suppressed, and is conse- 
quently nearly always a dominant or intermediate tree. 
In a hardwood bottom forest the timber trees are all of 
nearly the same age over considerable areas, and there 
is little young growth to be found in the older stands. 
The reason for this is the intolerance of most of the 
swamp species. A scale of tolerance containing the im- 
portant species, and beginning with the most light de- 
manding, would run as follows: Cottonwood, sycamore, 
red gum, white elm, red oak, white ash and red maple. 

DEMANDS UPON SOIL AND MOISTUEE 

While the red gum grows in various situations, it pre- 
fers the deep, rich soil of the hardwood bottoms, and 
there reaches its best development. (See Fig. 50.) It 



42 COOPERAGE 

requires considerable soil moisture, though it does not 
grow in the wetter swamps, and does not thrive on dry 
pine land. Seedlings, however, are often found in large 
numbers on the edges of the uplands and even on the 
sandy pine land, but they seldom live beyond the pole 
stage. When they do, they form small, scrubby trees that 
are of little value. Where the soil is dry the tree has a 
long tap-root. In the swamps, where the roots can obtain 
water easily, the development of the tap-root is poor, 
and it is only moderate on the glade bottom lands, where 
there is considerable moisture throughout the year, but 
no standing water in the summer months. 

EEPEODUCTIOX OF EED GUM 

Eed gum reproduces both by seed and by sprouts. ( See 
Fig. 52.) It produces seed fairly abundantly every year, 
but about once in three years there is an extremely heavy 
production. The tree begins to bear seed when twenty- 
five to thirty years old, and seeds vigorously up to an 
age of one hundred and fifty years, when its productive 
power begins to diminish. A great part of the seed, how- 
ever, is abortive. Eed gum is not fastidious in regard to 
its germinating bed; it comes up readily on sod in old 
fields and meadows, on decomposing homus in the forest, 
or on bare clay-loam or loamy sand soil. It requires a 
considerable degree of light, however, and prefers a 
moist seed bed. The natural distribution of the seed 
takes place for several hundred feet from the seed trees, 
the dissemination depending almost entirely on the wind. 
A great part of the seed falls on the hardwood bottoms 
when the land is flooded, and is either washed away or, 
if already in the ground and germinating, is destroyed 
by the long continued overflow. After germination, the 
red gum seedling demands, above everything else, abun- 
dant light for its survival and development. It is for 



TIMBER 43 

this reason that there is very little young growth of red 
gum, either in the unculled forest or on culled lands, 
where, as is usually the case, a dense undergrowth of 
cane, briers, and rattan is present. Under the dense 
underbrush of cane and briers throughout much of the 
virgin forest, reproduction of any of the merchantable 
species is of course impossible. And even where the 
land has been logged over, the forest is seldom open 
enough to allow reproduction of cottonwood and red gum. 
Where, however, seed trees are contiguous to pastures 
or cleared land, scattered seedlings are found springing 
up in the open, and where openings occur in the forest, 
there are often large numbers of red gum seedlings, the 
reproduction generally occurring in groups. But over 
the greater part of the Southern hardwood bottom land 
forest reproduction is .extremely scanty. The growth of 
red gum during the early part of its life, and up to the 
time it reaches a diameter of eight inches breast-high, is 
extremely rapid, and, like most of the intolerant species, 
it attains its height growth at an early period. Gum 
sprouts readily from the stump, and the sprouts surpass 
the seedlings in rate of height growth for the first few 
years, but they seldom form large timber trees. The 
capacity to sprout when cut is confined to the younger 
trees. Those over fifty years of age seldom sprout. For 
this reason sprout reproduction is of little importance 
in the forest. The principal requirements of red gum, 
then, are a moist, fairly rich soil and good exposure to 
light. Without these it will not reach its best develop- 
ment. 

SECOND GEOWTH 

Second-growth red gum occurs to any considerable ex- 
tent only on land which has been thoroughly cleared. 
Throughout the South there is a great deal of land which 
was in cultivation before the war, but which during the 



44 COOPERAGE 

subsequent period of industrial depression was aban- 
doned and allowed to revert to forest. These old fields are 
now mostly covered with second-growth forest, of which 
red gum forms an important part. (Fig. 52.) Frequently 
over fifty per cent, of the stand consists of this species, 
but more often, and especially on the Atlantic Coast, the 
greater part is of cottonwood or ash. These stands are 
very dense, and the growth is extremely rapid. Small 
stands of young growth are also often found along the 
edges of cultivated fields. In the Mississippi Valley the 
abandoned fields on which young stands have sprung up 
are for the most part being rapidly cleared again. The 
second growth here is considered of little value in com- 
parison with the value of the land for agricultural pur- 
poses. In many cases, however, the farm value of the 
land is not at present sufficient to make it profitable to 
clear it, unless the timber cut will at least pay for the 
operation. There is considerable land upon which the 
second growth will become valuable timber within a few 
years. Such land should not be cleared until it is possible 
to utilize the timber. 

30. Tupelo Gum (Nyssa aquatica) (Bay Poplae, Cot- 
ton Gum). The close similarity which exists between 
red and tupelo gum, together with the fact that tupelo 
is often cut along with red gum, and marketed with the 
sapwood of the latter, makes it not out of place to give 
consideration to this timber. The wood has a fine, uni- 
form texture, is moderately hard and strong, is stiff, not 
elastic, very tough and hard to split, but easy to work 
with tools. Tupelo takes glue, paint, or varnish well, 
and absorbs very little of the material. In this respect 
it is equal to yellow poplar and superior to cottonwood. 
The wood is not durable in contact with the ground, and 
requires much care in seasoning. The distinction be- 
tween the heartwood and sapwood of this species is 



TIMBEE 45 

marked. The former varies in color from a dull gray to 
a dull brown; the latter is whitish or light yellow, like 
that of poplar. The wood is of medium weight, about 
thirty-two pounds per cubic foot when dry, or nearly that 
of red gum and loblolly pine. After seasoning it is dif- 
ficult to distinguish the better grades of the sapwood 
from poplar. Owing to the prejudice against tupelo gum, 
it was until recently marketed under such names as bay 
poplar, swamp poplar, nyssa, cotton gum, Circassian wal- 
nut and hazel pine. Since it has become evident that the 
properties of the wood fit it for many uses, the demand 
for tupelo has largely increased, and it is now taking 
rank with other standard woods under its rightful name. 
Heretofore the quality and usefulness of this wood were 
greatly underestimated, and the difficulty of handling it 
was magnified. Poor success in seasoning and kiln-dry- 
ing was laid to defects of the wood itself, when, as a 
matter of fact, the failures were largely due to the ab- 
sence of proper methods in handling. The passing of 
this prejudice against tupelo is due to a better under- 
standing of the characteristics and uses of the wood. 
Handled in the way in which its particular character 
demands tupelo is a wood of value. 

USES OF THE WOOD 

Tupelo is now used in the manufacture of slack coop- 
erage, principally for heading. Is used extensively for 
house flooring and inside finishing, such as mouldings, 
door jams, and casings. A great deal is now shipped to 
European countries, where it is highly valued for dif- 
ferent classes of manufacture. Much of the wood is used 
in the manufacture of boxes, since it works well upon 
rotary veneer machines. There is also an increasing 
demand for tupelo for laths, wooden pumps, violin and 
organ sounding boards, coffins, mantel work, conduits 



46 COOPERAGE 

and novelties. It is also used in the furniture trade for 
backing, drawers and panels. 

RANGE OF TUPELO GUM 

Tupelo occurs throughout the coastal region of the 
Atlantic States from Southern Virginia to Northern Flor- 
ida, through the Gulf States to the valley of the Nueces 
River in Texas, through Arkansas and Southern Missouri 
to Western Kentucky and Tennessee, and to the valley 
of the lower Wabash River. Tupelo is being extensively 
milled at present only in the region adjacent to Mobile, 
Ala., and in Southern and Central Louisiana, where it 
occurs in large merchantable quantities, attaining its best 
development in the former locality. The country in this 
locality is very swampy (see Fig. 54), and within a radius 
of one hundred miles tupelo gum is one of the principal 
timber trees. It grows only in the swamps and wetter 
situations (see Fig. 54), often in mixture with cypress, 
and in the rainy season it stands in from two to twenty 
feet of water. 

31. Black Gum (Nyssa sylvatica) (Sour Gum). Black 
gum is not cut to much extent, owing to its less abundant 
supply and poorer quality, but is used for repair work 
on wagons, for cattle yokes, and for other purposes 
which require a strong non-splitting wood. It is dis- 
tributed from Maine to Southern Ontario, through Cen- 
tral Michigan to Southeastern Missouri, southward to the 
valley of the Brazos River in Texas, and eastward to the 
Kissimmee River and Tampa Bay in Florida. It is found 
in the swamps and hardwood bottoms, but is more abun- 
dant and of better size on the slightly higher ridges and 
hummocks in these swamps, and on the mountain slopes 
in the southern Allegheny region. Though its range is 
greater than that of either the red or tupelo gum, it no- 
where forms an important part of the forest. 



TIMBER 47 

HACKBERRY. 

32. Hackbeeky (Celtis occidentalis) (Sugae Beeey). 
The wood handsome, heavy, hard, strong, quite tough, 
of moderately fine texture, and greenish or yellowish 
white color; shrinks moderately, works well and stands 
well, and takes a good polish. Used to some extent in 
slack cooperage, but little used in the manufacture of 
furniture. Medium to large-sized tree, locally quite com- 
mon, largest in the lower Mississippi Valley. Occurs in 
nearly all parts of the Eastern United States. 

HICKORY. — Wood very heavy, hard and strong, prover- 
bially tough, of rather coarse texture, smooth and of 
straight grain. The broad sapwood white, the heart- 
wood reddish nut brown. It dries slowly, shrinks 
and checks considerably; is not durable in the 
ground, or if exposed, and, especially the sapwood, 
is always subject to the inroads of boring insects. 
Hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock, but is 
also extensively used in the manufacture of imple- 
ments and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, 
for harness work, dowel pins and hoops in cooper- 
age. The hickories are tall trees with slender stems, 
never form forests, occasionally small groves, but 
usually occur scattered among other broad-leaved 
trees in suitable localities. The following species 
all contribute more or less to the hickory of the 
market. 

33. Shagbaek Hickoey (Hicoria ovata) (Shellbaek 
Hickoey). A medium to large-sized tree, quite common; 
the favorite among hickories ; best developed in the Ohio 
and Mississippi basins; from Lake Ontario to Texas, 
Minnesota to Florida. 

34. Mockeenut Hickoey (Hicoria alba) (Black Hick- 
oey, Bull and Black Nut, Big Bud, and White-He aet 



48 COOPERAGE 

Hickory). A medium to large-sized tree, with the same 
range as the foregoing; common, especially in the South. 

35. Pignut Hickory (Hicoria glabra) (Brown Hick- 
ory, Black Hickory, Switch-Bud Hickory). Medium to 
large-sized tree, abundant, all Eastern United States. 

36. Bitternut Hickory (Hicoria minima) (Swamp 
Hickory). A medium-sized tree, favoring wet localities, 
with the same range as the preceding. 

37. Pecan (Hicoria pecan) (Illinois Nut). A large 
tree, very common in the fertile bottoms of the Western 
streams. Indiana to Nebraska and southward to Louisi- 
ana and Texas. 

HOLLY. 

38. Holly (Ilex opaca). Wood of medium weight, 
hard, strong, tough, of fine texture and white color; 
works well and stands well, used for cabinet work and 
turnery. A small tree. Most abundant in the lower 
Mississippi Valley and Gulf States, but occurring east- 
ward to Massachusetts and north to Indiana. 

HORSE-CHESTNUT. (See Buckeye.) 
IRONWOOD. (See Blue Beech.) 

LOCUST. — This name applies to both of the following: 

39. Black Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) (Black Lo- 
cust, Yellow Locust). Wood very heavy, hard, strong, 
and tough, of coarse texture, very durable in contact 
with the soil, shrinks considerably and suffers in sea- 
soning; the very narrow sapwood yellowish, the heart- 
wood brown, with shades of red and green. Used for 
wagon hubs, tree nails or pins, but especially for ties, 
posts, etc. Abroad it is much used for furniture and 
farming implements and also in turnery. Small to me- 



TIMBER 49 

dium- sized tree. At home in the Alleghanies, extensively 
planted, especially in the West. 

40. Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) (Black 
Locust, Sweet Locust, Thkee-Thokned Acacia). Wood 
heavy, hard, strong, tongh, of coarse texture, susceptible 
of a good polish, the narrow sapwood yellow, the heart- 
wood brownish red. So far, but little appreciated except 
for fences and fuel ; used to some extent for wagon hubs 
and in rough construction. A medium-sized tree. Found 
from Pennsylvania to Nebraska, and southward to Flor- 
ida and Texas; locally quite abundant. 

MAGNOLIA. (See Tulip.) 

MAPLE. — Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough, of 
fine texture, frequently wavy-grained, this giving 
rise to "curly" and "blister" figures; not durable 
in the ground, or when otherwise exposed. Maple 
is creamy white, with shades of light brown in the 
heart, shrinks moderately, seasons, works and stands 
well, wears smoothly, and takes a fine polish. The 
wood is used in slack cooperage, and for ceiling, 
flooring, panelling, stairway, and other finishing 
lumber in house, ship and car construction. It is 
used for the keel of boats and ships, in the manufac- 
ture of implements and machinery, but especially 
for furniture, where entire chamber sets of maple 
rival those of oak. Maple is also used for shoe lasts 
and other form blocks; for shoe pegs; for piano 
actions, school apparatus; for wood type in show 
bill printing, tool handles ; in wood carving, turnery, 
and scroll work, and is one of our most useful woods. 
The maples are medium-sized trees, of fairly rapid 
growth ; sometimes form forests, and frequently con- 
stitute a large proportion of the arborescent growth. 



50 COOPERAGE 

41. Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) (Hard Maple, 
Rock Maple). Medium to large-sized tree, very common, 
forms considerable forests. Maine to Minnesota, abun- 
dant, with birch, in parts of the pineries, southward to 
Northern Florida; most abundant in the region of the 
Great Lakes. 

42. Red Maple (Acer rubrum) (Swamp Maple, Water 
Maple). Medium-sized tree. Like the preceding, but 
scattered along watercourses and other moist localities. 

43. Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) (Soft Maple, 
Silver Maple). Medium-sized tree, common; wood 
lighter, softer, inferior to hard maple, and usually offered 
in small quantities and held separate in the markets. 
Valley of the Ohio, but occurs from Maine to Dakota and 
southward to Florida. 

44. Broad-Leaved Maple (Acer macro phyllum) . Me- 
dium-sized tree, forms considerable forests, and, like the 
preceding, has a lighter, softer, and less valuable wood. 
Pacific Coast regions. 

MULBERRY. 

45. Red Mulberry (Moms rubra). Wood moderately 
heavy, hard, strong, rather tough, of coarse texture, dur- 
able; the sapwood whitish, heartwood yellow to orange 
brown; shrinks and checks considerably in drying; works 
well and stands well. Used in cooperage and locally in 
shipbuilding and in the manufacture of farm implements. 
A small-sized tree. Common in the Ohio and Mississippi 
valleys, but widely distributed in the Eastern United 
States. 

OAK. — Wood very variable, usually very heavy and hard, 
very strong and tough, porous, and of coarse texture ; 
the sapwood whitish, the heartwood "oak" brown 



TIMBER 51 

to reddish brown. It shrinks and checks badly, giv- 
ing trouble in seasoning, but stands well, is durable, 
and little subject to the attack of insects. Oak is 
used for many purposes, and is the chief wood used 
for tight cooperage ; was also used quite extensively 
in former years for slack cooperage, but on account 
of its increased value had to be abandoned for 
cheaper woods. It is used in shipbuilding, for heavy 
construction, in carpentry, in furniture, car and 
wagon work, turnery, and even in wood carving; 
also in the manufacture of all kinds of farm im- 
plements, wooden mill machinery, for piles and 
wharves, railway ties, etc. The oaks are medium to 
large-sized trees, forming the predominant part of 
a large portion of our broad-leaved forests, so that 
these are generally- termed "oak forests," though 
they always contain a considerable proportion of 
other kinds of trees. Three well-marked kinds — 
white, red, and live oak — are distinguished and kept 
separate in the market. Of the two principal kinds 
"white oak" is the stronger, tougher, less porous, 
and more durable. "Bed oak" is usually of coarser 
texture, more porous, often brittle, less durable, and 
even more troublesome in seasoning than white oak. 
In carpentry and furniture work red oak brings 
about the same price at present as white oak. The 
red oaks everywhere accompany the white oaks, and, 
like the latter, are usually represented by several 
species in any given locality. "Live oak," once 
largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses all the 
good qualities (except that of size) of white oak, 
even to a greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, 
hardest, toughest, and most durable woods of this 
country; in structure it resembles the red oaks, but 
is much less porous. 



52 COOPERAGE 

46. White Oak (Quercus alba). Medium to large- 
sized tree. Common in the Eastern States, Ohio and 
Mississippi valleys; occurs throughout Eastern United 
States. 

47. Bub Oak {Quercus macrocarpa) (Mossy-Cup Oak, 
Over-Cup Oak). Large-sized tree, locally abundant, com- 
mon. Bottoms west of Mississippi; range farther west 
than the preceding. 

48. Swamp White Oak {Quercus bicolor). Large-sized 
tree, common. Most abundant in the Lake States, but 
with a range as in white oak. 

49. Yellow Oak {Quercus prinoides) (Chestnut Oak, 
Chinquapin Oak). Medium-sized tree. Southern Alle- 
ghanies, eastward to Massachusetts. 

50. Basket Oak {Quercus michauxii) (Cow Oak). 
Large-sized tree. Locally abundant; lower Mississippi 
and eastward to Delaware. 

51. Over-Cup Oak {Quercus lyrata) (Swamp White 
Oak, Swamp Post Oak). Medium to large-sized tree, 
rather restricted; ranges as in the preceding. 

52. Post Oak {Quercus obtusiloba) (Iron Oak). Me- 
dium to large-sized tree. Arkansas to Texas, eastward 
to New England and northward to Michigan. 

53. White Oak {Quercus durandii). Medium to small- 
sized tree. Texas, eastward to Alabama. 

54. White Oak {Quercus gar ry ana). Medium to large- 
sized tree. Washington to California. 

55. White Oak {Quercus lobata). Medium to large- 
sized tree. Largest oak on the Pacific Coast, California. 

56. Red Oak {Quercus rubra) { Black Oak). Medium 
to large-sized tree; common in all parts of its range. 
Maine to Minnesota, and southward to the Gulf. 

57. Black Oak {Quercus tinctoria) (Yellow Oak). 



TIMBEE 53 

Medium to large-sized tree. Very common in the South- 
ern States, but occurring north as far as Minnesota, and 
eastward to Maine. 

58. Spanish Oak (Quercus falcata) (Red Oak). Me- 
dium-sized tree. Common in the South Atlantic and Gulf 
region, but found from Texas to New York, and north to 
Missouri and Kentucky. 

59. Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea). Medium to large- 
sized tree. Best developed in the lower basin of the Ohio, 
but found from Maine to Missouri, and from Minnesota 
to Florida. 

60. Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) (Swamp Spanish 
Oak, Water Oak). Medium to large-sized tree, common 
along borders of streams and swamps. Arkansas to 
Wisconsin, and eastward to the Alleghanies. 

61. Willow Oak (Quercus phellos) (Peach Oak). 
Small to medium-sized tree. New York to Texas, and 
northward to Kentucky. 

62. Water Oak (Quercus aquatica) (Duck Oak, Pos- 
sum Oak, Punk Oak). Medium to large-sized tree, of 
extremely rapid growth. Eastern Gulf States, eastward 
to Delaware, and northward to Missouri and Kentucky. 

63. Live Oak (Quercus rirens). Small-sized tree. 
Scattered along the coast from Virginia to Texas. 

64. Live Oak (Quercus clirysolepis) (Maul Oak, Val- 
paraiso Oak). Medium-sized tree. California. 

OSAGE ORANGE. 

65. Osage Orange (Madura aurantiaca) (Bois d'Arc). 
Wood very heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, not tough, 
of moderately coarse texture, and very durable ; the sap- 
wood yellow, heartwood brown on the end, yellow on 
longitudinal faces, soon turning grayish brown if ex- 
posed. It shrinks considerably in drying, but once dry 



54 COOPERAGE 

it stands unusually well. Formerly much used for wheel 
stock, in the dry regions of Texas; otherwise employed 
for posts, railway ties, etc. Seems too little appreciated; 
it is well suited for turned ware and especially for wood 
carving. A small-sized tree, of fairly rapid growth. 
Scattered through the rich bottoms of Arkansas and 
Texas. 

PERSIMMON. 

66. Peksimmon (Diospyros virginiana). Wood very 
heavy and hard, strong and tough; resembles hickory, 
but is of finer texture; the broad sapwood cream color, 
the heartwood black ; used in turnery, for shuttles, plane 
stocks, shoe lasts, etc. Small to medium-sized tree. Com- 
mon and best developed in the lower Ohio Valley, but 
occurs from New York to Texas and Missouri. 

POPLAR, (see also Tulipwood). — Wood light, very soft, 
not strong, of fine texture and whitish, grayish to 
yellowish color, usually with a satiny lustre. The 
wood shrinks moderately (some cross-grained forms 
warp excessively), but checks very little; is easily 
worked, but is not durable. Used in cooperage, as 
building and furniture lumber, for crates and boxes 
(especially cracker boxes), for woodenware and 
paper pulp. 

67. Cottonwood (Populus monilifera). Large-sized 
tree ; forms considerable forests along many of the West- 
ern streams, and furnishes most of the cottonwood of the 
market. Mississippi Valley and West; New England to 
the Rocky Mountains. 

68. Balsam {Populus balsamifera) (Balm of Gilead). 
Medium to large-sized tree. Common all along the north- 
ern boundary of the United States. 

69. Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa). The 



TIMBER 55 

largest deciduous tree of Washington; very common. 
Northern Rocky Mountains and Pacific region. 

70. Cottonwood (Populus fremontii var. wislizeni). 
Medium to large-sized tree; common. Texas to Cal- 
ifornia. 

71. Poplae (Populus grandidentata). Medium-sized 
tree, chiefly used for pulp. Maine to Minnesota and 
southward along the Alleghanies. 

72. Aspen (Populus tremuloides) . Small to medium- 
sized tree, often forming extensive forests and covering 
burned areas. Maine to Washington and northward, 
south in the western mountains to California and New 
Mexico. 

SOUR GUM. (See Gum.) 

RED GUM. (See Gum.) 

SASSAFRAS. 

73. Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras). Wood light, soft, 
not strong, brittle, of coarse texture, durable; the sap- 
wood yellow, heartwood orange brown. Used to some ex- 
tent in slack cooperage, for skiffs, fencing, etc. Medium- 
sized tree, largest in the lower Mississippi Valley. Oc- 
curs from New England to Texas and from Michigan to 
Florida. 

SWEET GUM. (See Gum.) 

SYCAMORE. 

74. Sycamoke {Plat anus occidentalism (Buttonwood, 
Button-Ball Tkee, Watek Beech). Wood moderately 
heavy, quite hard, stiff, strong, tough, usually cross- 
grained, of coarse texture, and white to light brown color; 
the wood is hard to split and work, shrinks moderately, 
warps and checks considerably, but stands well. It is 
used in slack cooperage, and quite extensively for draw- 



56 COOPEEAGE 

ers, backs, bottoms, etc.; in cabinet work, for tobacco 
boxes, and also for finishing lumber, where it has too long 
been underrated. A large tree, of rapid growth. Com- 
mon and largest in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, at 
home in nearly all parts of the Eastern United States. 

75. Sycamore (Plat anus racemosa). The California 
species resembles in its wood the Eastern form. 

76. Tulip Tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) (Yellow 
Poplar, White Wood). Wood quite variable in weight, 
usually light, soft, stiff but not strong, of fine texture, 
and yellowish color; the wood shrinks considerably, but 
seasons without much injury ; works and stands remark- 
ably well. Used in slack cooperage, for siding, for pan- 
elling and finishing lumber in house, car, and shipbuild- 
ing, for sideboards and panels of wagons and carriages; 
also in the manufacture of furniture, implements and 
machinery, for pump logs, and almost every kind of com- 
mon woodenware, boxes, shelving, drawers, etc. An ideal 
wood for the carver and toy man. A large tree, does not 
form forests, but is quite common, especially in the Ohio 
basin. Occurs from New England to Missouri and south- 
ward to Florida. 

77. Cucumber Tree (Magnolia acuminata). A me- 
dium-sized tree, most common in the southern Alle- 
ghanies, but distributed from New York to Arkansas, 
southward to Alabama and northward to Illinois. Ee- 
sembling, and probably confounded with, tulip wood in 
the markets. 

TUPELO. (See Gum.) 

WALNUT. 

78. Black Walnut (Juglans nigra). Wood heavy, 
hard, strong, of coarse texture; the narrow sapwood 
whitish, the heartwood chocolate brown. The wood 



TIMBER . 57 

shrinks moderately in drying, works well and stands well ; 
takes a good polish. It is quite handsome, and has been 
for a long time the favorite cabinet wood in this country. 
Walnut, formerly used even for fencing, has become too 
costly for ordinary uses, and is to-day employed largely 
as a veneer, for inside finish and cabinet work; also in 
turnery, for gunstocks, etc. Black walnut is a large tree, 
with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and was formerly quite 
abundant throughout the Alleghany region, occurring 
from New England to Texas, and from Michigan to 
Florida. 

WHITE WALNUT. (See Butternut.) 

WHITE WOOD. (See Tulip and also Basswood.) 

WHITE WILLOW. 

79. White Willow -(Salix alba). The wood is very 
soft, light, flexible and fairly strong, is fairly durable in 
contact with the soil, works well and stands well when 
seasoned. Medium- sized tree characterized by a short, 
thick trunk and a large, rather irregular crown composed 
of many small branches. The size of the tree at maturity 
varies with the locality. In the region where it occurs 
naturally, a height of seventy or eighty feet, and a diam- 
eter of three or four feet are attained. When planted 
in the Middle West, a height of from fifty to sixty feet, 
and a diameter of one and one-half to two feet, are all 
that may be expected. When close planted on moist 
soil, the tree forms a tall, slender stem well cleared of 
branches. Is widely naturalized in the United States. 
It is used in slack cooperage, and for cricket and base- 
ball bats. Charcoal made from the wood is used in the 
manufacture of gunpowder. It has been generally used 
for fence posts on the northwestern plains, because of 
scarcity of better material. Well-seasoned posts will last 
from four to seven years. 



58 COOPERAGE 

YELLOW POPLAR. 

80. Yellow Poplak (Liriodendron tulipifera) (Tulip 
Tree, Whitewood, Poplak, White Poplar, Blue Poplar, 
Hickory Poplar). Wood usually light, but varies in 
weight; it is soft, tough, but not strong, of fine texture, 
and yellowish color. The wood shrinks considerably, but 
seasons without much injury and works and stands ex- 
ceedingly well. The sapwood is thin, light in color, and 
decays rapidly. It is fairly durable when exposed to the 
weather or in contact with the ground. The mature 
forest-grown tree has a long, straight, cylindrical bole, 
clear of branches for at least two-thirds of its length, 
surmounted by a short, open, irregular crown. When 
growing in the open, the tree maintains a straight stem, 
but the crown extends almost to the ground, and is of 
conical shape. Yellow poplar ordinarily grows to a height 
of from 100 to 125 feet, with a diameter of from three to 
six feet, and a clear length of about 70 feet. Trees 
have been found 190 feet tall and ten feet in diameter. 
The wood is used in slack cooperage, for siding, panelling, 
and interior finishing, and in the manufacture of toys, 
boxes, culinary woodenware, wagon boxes, carriage 
bodies and backing for veneer. It is in great demand 
throughout the vehicle and implement trade, and also 
makes a fair grade of wood pulp. Occurs from New 
England to Missouri and southward to Florida. 

DIFFERENT GRAINS OF WOOD 

The terms "fine-grained," " coarse-grained, ' ; 
"straight-grained" and "cross-grained" are frequently 
applied in the trade. In common usage, wood is coarse- 
grained if its annual rings are wide ; fine-grained if they 
are narrow. In the finer wood industries a fine-grained 
wood is capable of high polish, while a coarse-grained 
wood is not, so that in this latter case the distinction 



TIMBER 



59 



depends chiefly on hardness, and in the former on an 
accidental case of slow or rapid growth. Generally if 
the direction of the wood fibres is parallel to the axis of 
the stem or limb in which they occur, the wood is straight- 
grained; but in many cases the course of the fibres is 
spiral or twisted around the tree (as shown in Fig. 10) 
and sometimes commonly in the butts of gum and cy- 
press, the fibres of several layers are oblique in one direc- 





barK 



FlG. 10 



Fig. 11 



Fig. 10. Spiral Grain. Season checks, after removal of bark, indicate the 
direction of the fibres or grain of the wood. 

Fig. 11. Alternating Spiral Grain in Cypress. Side and end view of same 
piece. When the bark was at o the grain of this piece was straight 
From that time, each year it grew more oblique in one direction, reach- 
ing a climax at a, and then turned back in the opposite direction. These 
alternations were repeated periodically, the bark sharing in these 
changes. 



tion, and those of the next series of layers are oblique 
in the opposite direction. (As shown in Fig. 11 the wood 
is cross or twisted grain.) Wavy-grain in a tangential 
plain as seen on the radial section is illustrated in Fig. 12, 



60 



COOPERAGE 



which represents an extreme case observed in beech. 
This same form also occurs on the radial plain, causing 
the tangential section to appear wavy or in transverse 
folds. When wavy- grain is fine (i. e., the folds or ridges 
small but numerous) it gives rise to the "curly" struc- 
ture frequently seen in maple. Ordinarily, neither wavy, 
spiral, nor alternate grain is visible on the cross-section; 
its existence often escapes the eye even on smooth, longi- 
tudinal faces in the sawed material, so that the only safe 





FIG. 12. WAVY-GRAIN IN BEECH; AFTER NORDLINGER 



guide to their discovery lies in splitting the wood in two, 
in the two normal plains. Generally the surface of the 
wood under the bark, and therefore also that of any layer 
in the interior, is not uniform and smooth, but is chan- 
nelled and pitted by numerous depressions, which differ 
greatly in size and form. Usually, any one depression 
or elevation is restricted to one or few annual layers 



TIMBER 



61. 



(i. e., seen only in one or few rings) and is then lost, being 
compensated (the surface at the particular spot evened 
up) by growth. In some woods, however, any depression 
or elevation once attained grows from year to year and 
reaches a maximum size, which is maintained for many 
years, sometimes throughout life. In maple, where this 
tendency to preserve any particular contour is very great, 
the depressions and elevations are usually small (com- 
monly less than one-eighth inch) but very numerous. 
On tangent boards of such wood, the sections, pits, and 
prominences appear as circlets, and give rise to the beau- 
tiful "birdseye" or "landscape" 
structure. Similar structures in 
the burls of black ash, maple, etc., 
are frequently due to the presence 
of dormant buds, which cause the 
surface of all the layers through 
which they pass to be covered by 
small conical elevations, whose 
cross-sections on the sawed board 
appear as irregular circlets or 
islets, each with a dark speck, the 
section of the pith or "trace" of 
the dormant bud in the centre. In 
the wood of many broad-leaved 
trees the wood fibres are much 
longer when full grown than when 
they are first formed in the cam- 
bium or growing zone. This causes 
the tips of each fibre to crowd in 
between the fibres above and be- 
low, and leads to an irregular in- 
terlacement of these fibres, which 




*Fig. 13. Section of Wood 
Showing Position of the 
Grain at Base of a Limb. 



*P, pith of both stem and limb; 1-1, seven yearly layers of wood; 
a. b, knot or basal part of a limb which lived four years, then died and 



62 COOPERAGE 

adds to the toughness, hut reduces the cleavability of 
the wood. At the juncture of the limb and stem the 
fibres on the upper and lower sides of the limb behave 
differently. On the lower side they run from the stem 
into the limb, forming an uninterrupted strand or tissue 
and a perfect union. On the upper side the fibres bend 
aside, are not continuous into the limb, and hence the 
connection is not perfect. (See Fig. 13.) Owing to this 
arrangement of the fibres, the cleft made in splitting 
never runs into the knot if started on the side above the 
limb, but is apt to enter the knot if started below, a fact 
well understood in woodcraft. When limbs die, decay, 
and break off, the remaining stubs are surrounded, and 
may finally be covered by the growth of the trunk and 
thus give rise to the annoying "dead" or "loose" knots. 

COLOR AND ODOR 

Color, like structure, lends beauty to the wood, aids in 
its identification, and is of great value in the determina- 
tion of its quality. Considering only the heartwood, the 
black color of the persimmon, the dark brown of the wal- 
nut, the light brown of the white oaks, the reddish brown 
of the red oaks, the yellowish white of the tulip and pop- 
lars, the brownish red of the redwood and cedars, the 
yellow of the papaw and sumac, are all reliable marks of 
distinction, and color. Together with lustre and weight, 
are only too often the only features depended upon in 
practice. Newly formed wood, like that of the outer few 
rings, has but little color. The sapwood generally is 
light, and the wood of trees which form no heartwood 
changes but little, except when stained by forerunners of 

broke off near the stem, leaving the part to the left of a, b, a "sound" 
knot, the part to the right a "dead" knot, which would soon be entirely 
covered by the growing stem. 



TIMBER 63 

disease. The different tints of colors, whether the brown 
of oak, the orange-brown of pine, the blackish tint of 
walnut, or the reddish cast of cedar, are due to pigments, 
while the deeper shade of the summer-wood bands in 
pine, cedar, oak, or walnut is due to the fact that the wood 
being denser, more of the colored wood substance occurs 
on a given space, i. e.,, there is more colored matter per 
square inch. Wood is translucent, a thin disk of pine 
permitting light to pass through quite freely. This trans- 
lucency affects the lustre and brightness of lumber. 
When lumber is attacked by fungi, it becomes more 
opaque, loses its brightness, and in practice is designated 
"dead," in distinction to "live" or bright timber. Ex- 
posure to air darkens all wood ; direct sunlight and occa- 
sional moistening hastens this change, and causes it to 
penetrate deeper. Prolonged immersion has the same 
effect, pine wood becoming a dark gray, while oak 
changes to a blackish brown. Odor, like color, depends 
on chemical compounds, forming no part of the wood 
substance itself. Exposure to weather reduces and often 
changes the odor, but a piece of long-leaf pine, cedar, 
or camphor wood exhales apparently as much odor as 
ever when a new surface is exposed. Heartwood is more 
odoriferous than sapwood. Many kinds of wood are dis- 
tinguished by strong and peculiar odors. This is espe- 
cially the case with camphor, cedar, pine, oak and mahog- 
any, and the list would comprise every kind of wood in 
use were our sense of smell developed in keeping with 
its importance. Decomposition is usually accompanied 
by pronounced odors. Decaying poplar emits a disagree- 
able odor, while red oak often becomes fragrant, its smell 
resembling that of heliotrope. 

WEIGHT OF WOOD 

A small cross-section of wood (as in Fig. 14) dropped 



64 



COOPERAGE 




into water sinks, showing that the substance of which 

wood fibre or wood is built up is heav- 
ier than water. By immersing the 
wood successively in heavier liquids, 
until we find a liquid in 
which it does not sink, and 
comparing the weight of 

fig. u. CBoss-SECTioNthe same with water, we 
of a Group of Wood find that wood substance is 

Fibres. Highly about L6 timeg ag neayy ag 

water, and that this is as 
true of poplar as of oak or pine. Separating 
a single cell (as shown in Fig. 15, a), drying 
and then dropping it into water, it floats. The 
air-filled cell cavity or interior reduces its 
weight, and, like an empty corked bottle, it 
weighs less than the water. Soon, however, 
water soaks into the cell, when it fills up and 
sinks. Many such cells grown together, as 
in a block of wood, sink when all or most 
of them are filled with water, but will float as long 
as the majority of them are empty or only partially 
filled. This is why a green, sappy pine pole soon sinks 
in "driving" (floating). Its cells are largely filled be- 
fore it is thrown in, and but little additional water suf- 
fices to make its weight greater than that of the water. 
In a good-sized white pine log, composed chiefly of empty 
cells (heartwood), the water requires a very long time 
to fill up the cells (five years would not suffice to fill them 
all), and therefore the log may float for many months. 
"When the wall of the wood fibre is very thick (five-eighths 
or more of the volume, as in Fig. 15, b), the fibre sinks 
whether empty or filled. This applies to most of the 
fibres of the dark summer-wood bands in pines, and to 
the compact fibres of oak or hickory, and many, especially 



3 

Fig. 15. 

Isolated 

Fibres of 

Wood. 



TIMBER 



65 



tropical woods, have such thick-walled cells and so little 
empty or air space that they never float. Here, then, are 
the two main factors of weight in wood : the amount of 
cell wall or wood substance constant for any given piece, 
and the amount of water contained in the wood, variable 
even in the standing tree, and only in part eliminated in 
drying. The weight of the green wood of any species 
varies chiefly as a second factor, and is entirely mislead- 
ing, if the relative weight of different kinds is sought. 
Thus some green sticks of the otherwise lighter cypress 




cfisc.4 



disc.3 



dl8C.Z 



disci 



Fig. 16. Orientation of Wood Samples. 



and gum sink more readily than fresh oak. The weight 
of sapwood or the sappy, peripheral part of our com- 
mon lumber woods is always great, whether cut in winter 
or summer. It rarely falls much below forty-five pounds, 
and commonly exceeds fifty-five pounds to the cubic foot, 
even in our lighter wooded species. It follows that the 
green wood of a sapling is heavier than that of an old 



66 COOPERAGE 

tree, the fresh wood from a disk of the upper part of a 
tree often heavier than that of a lower part, and the 
wood near the bark heavier than that nearer the pith; 
and also that the advantage of drying the wood before 
shipping is most important in sappy and light kinds. 
When kiln-dried, the misleading moisture factor of weight 
is uniformly reduced, and a fair comparison possible. 
For the sake of convenience in comparison,, the weight of 
wood is expressed either as the weight per cubic foot, 
or, what is still more convenient, as specific weight or 
density. If an old long-leaf pine is cut up (as shown in 
Fig. 16) the wood of disk No. 1 is heavier than that of 
disk No. 2, the latter heavier than that of disk No. 3, and 
the wood of the top disk is found to be only about three- 
fourths as heavy as that of disk No. 1. Similarly, if disk 
No. 2 is cut up, as in the figure, the specific weight of the 
different parts is : 

a, about 0.52 

b, about 0.64 

c, about 0.67 
d, e, f, about 0.65 

showing that in this disk at least the wood. formed dur- 
ing the many years' growth, represented in piece a, is 
much lighter than that of former years. It also shows 
that the best wood is the middle part, with its large pro- 
portion of dark summer bands. Cutting up all disks in 
the same way, it will be found that the piece a of the 
first disk is heavier than the piece a of the fifth, and 
that piece c of the first disk excels the piece c of all the 
other disks. This shows that the wood grown during 
the same number of years is lighter in the upper parts 
of the stem ; and if the disks are smoothed on their radial 
surfaces and set up one on top of the other in their 
regular order, for the sake of comparison, this decrease 



TIMBER 67 

in weight will be seen to be accompanied by a decrease 
in the amount of summer-wood. The color effect of the 
upper disks is conspicuously lighter. If our old pine 
had been cut one hundred and fifty years ago, before 
the outer, lighter wood was laid on, it is evident that 
the weight of the wood of any one disk would have been 
found to increase from, the centre outward, and no sub- 
sequent decrease could have been observed. In a thrifty 
young pine, then, the wood is heavier from the centre 
outward, and lighter from below upward ; only the wood 
laid on in old age falls in weight below the average. The 
number of brownish bands of summer-wood are a direct 
indication of these differences. If an old oak is cut up 
in the same manner, the butt cut is also found heaviest 
and the top lightest, but, unlike the disk of pine, the disk 
of oak has its firmest wood at the centre, and each suc- 
cessive piece from the centre outward is lighter than its 
neighbor. Examining the pieces, this difference is not 
as readily explained by the appearance of each piece as 
in the case of pine wood. Nevertheless, one conspicuous 
point appears at once. The pores, so very distinct in oak, 
are very minute in the wood near the centre, and thus 
the wood is far less porous. 

Studying different trees, it is found that in the pines, 
wood with narrow rings is just as heavy as and often 
heavier than the wood with wider rings ; but if the rings 
are unusually narrow in any part of the disk, the wood 
has a lighter color ; that is, there is less summer-wood and 
therefore less weight. In oak, ash, or elm trees of thrifty 
growth, the rings, fairly wide (not less than one-twelfth 
inch), always form the heaviest wood, while any piece 
with very narrow rings is light. On the other hand, the 
weight of a piece of hard maple or birch is quite inde- 
pendent of the width of its rings. The bases of limbs 
(knots) are usually heavy, very heavy in conifers, and 



68 



COOPERAGE 



also the wood which surrounds them, hut generally the 
wood of the limbs is lighter than that of the stem, and 
the wood of the roots is the lightest. In general, it may 
be said that none of the native woods in common use in 
this country are when dry as heavy as water, i. e., sixty- 
two pounds to the cubic foot. Few exceed fifty pounds, 
while most of them fall below forty pounds, and much of 
the pine and other coniferous wood weigh less than thirty 
pounds per cubic foot. The weight of the wood is in itself 
an important quality. Weight assists in distinguishing 
maple from poplar. Lightness coupled with great 
strength and stiffness recommends wood for a thousand 
different uses. To a large extent weight predicates the 
strength of the wood, at least in the same species, so that 
a heavy piece of oak will exceed in strength a light piece 
of the same species, and in pine it appears probable that, 
weight for weight, the strength of the wood of various 
pines is nearly equal. 



WEIGHT OF KILN-DRIED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES 





Approximate 


Species 


Specific 
Weight 


Weight of 




1 

Cubic 
Foot 


1,000 

Feet 

Lumber 


(a) Very Heavy Woods: 

Hickory. Oak. Persimmon, Osage Orange, Black 
Locust, Hackberry, Blue Beech, Best of Elm, and 
Ash 


0.70-0.80 
0.60-0.70 

0.50-0.60 

0.40-0.50 
0.30-0. -10 


Pounds 
42-48 
36-42 

30-36 

24-30 
18-24 


Pounds 
3,700 
3,200 


(b) Heavy Woods: 

Ash, Elm, Cherry, Birch, Maple, Beech, Walnut, 
Sour Gum, Coffee Tree, Honey Locust. Best of 
Southern Pine and Tamarack 


(c) Woods of Medium Weight: 

Southern Pine, Pitch Pine, Tamarack, Douglass 
Spruce, Western Hemlock. Sweet Gum. Soft Maple, 
Sycamore. Sassafras, Mulberry, Light Grades of 
Birch, and Cherry 


2 700 


(d) Light Woods: 

Norway and Bull Pine, Red Cedar, Cypress. Hem- 
lock, the Heavier Spruce and Fir, Redwood, Bass- 
wood, Chestnut, Butternut. Tulip. Catalpa, Buck- 
eye, Heavier Grades of Poplar 


2 200 


(e) Very Light Woods: 

White Pine, Spruce, Fir, White Cedar, Poplar 


1.800 



SECTION II 



ENEMIES OF WOOD 



ENEMIES OF WOOD 



GENEEAL REMAEKS 

From the writer's personal investigations of this sub- 
ject in different sections of the country, the damage to 
forest products of various kinds from this cause seems to 
be far more extensive than is generally recognized. Al- 
lowing a loss of five per cent, on the total value of the 
forest products of the country, which the writer believes 
to be a conservative estimate, it would amount to some- 
thing over $30,000,000 annually. This loss differs from 
that resulting from insect damage to natural forest re- 
sources, in that it represents more directly a loss of 
money invested in material and labor. In dealing with 
the insects mentioned, as with forest insects in general, 
the methods which yield the best results are those which 
relate directly to preventing attack, as well as those which 
are unattractive or unfavorable. The insects have two 
objects in their attack: one is to obtain food, the other 
is to prepare for the development of their broods. Dif- 
ferent species of insects have special periods during the 
season of activity (March to November), when the adults 
are on the wing in search of suitable material in which 
to deposit their eggs. Some species, which fly in April, 
will be attracted to the trunks of recently felled pine trees 
or to piles of pine sawlogs from trees felled the previous 
winter. They are not attracted to any other kind of tim- 
ber, because they can live only in the bark or wood of 
pine, and only in that which is in the proper condition to 
favor the hatching of their eggs and the normal develop- 
ment of their young. As they fly only in April, they can- 



72 COOPERAGE 

not injure the logs of trees felled during the remainder 
of the year. 

There are also oak insects, which attack nothing but 
oak ; hickory, cypress, and spruce insects, etc., which have 
different habits and different periods of flight, and re- 
quire special conditions of the bark and wood for deposit- 
ing their eggs or for the subsequent development of their 
broods. Some of these insects have but one generation 
in a year, others have two or more, while some require 
more than one year for their complete development and 
transformation. Some species deposit their eggs in the 
bark or wood of trees soon after they are felled or before 
any perceptible change from the normal living tissue 
has taken place ; other species are attracted only to dead 
bark and dead wood of trees which have been felled or 
girdled for several months; others are attracted to dry 
and seasoned wood; while another class will attack noth- 
ing but very old dry bark or wood of special kinds and 
under special conditions. Thus it will be seen how impor- 
tant it is for the practical man to have knowledge of 
such of the foregoing facts as apply to his immediate 
interest in the manufacture or utilization of a given for- 
est product, in order that he may with the least trouble 
and expense adjust his business methods to meet the re- 
quirements for preventing losses. The work of different 
kinds of insects, as represented by special injuries to 
forest products, is the first thing to attract attention, 
and the distinctive character of this work is easily ob- 
served, while the insect responsible for it is seldom seen, 
or it is so difficult to determine by the general observer 
from descriptions or illustrations that the species is 
rarely recognized. Fortunately, the character of the 
work is often sufficient in itself to identify the cause and 
suggest a remedy, and in this section primary considera- 
tion is given to this phase of the subject. 



ENEMIES OF WOOD 



73 



a.... 




Fig. 17. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Tulip or Yellow Poplar Wood: 
a, work of Xyleborus affinis and Xyleboris inermis; b, Xyleboris obesus 
and work; c, bark; d, sapwood; e, heartwood. 




Fig. 18. Work of Ambrosia Beetles in Oak: a, Monarthrum mail and 
work; b, Platypus compositus and work; c, bark; d, sapwood; e, heart- 
wood; f, character of work in wood from injured log. 



74 COOPERAGE 

AMBKOSIA OR TIMBER BEETLES 

The characteristic work of this class of wood-boring 
beetles is shown in Figs. 17 and 18. The injury consists 
of pinhole and stained-wood defects in the sapwood and 
heartwood of recently felled or girdled trees, sawlogs, 
pulpwood, stave and shingle bolts, green or unseasoned 
lumber, and staves and heads of barrels containing alco- 
holic liquids. The holes and galleries are made by the 
adult parent beetles, to serve as entrances and temporary 
houses or nurseries for the development of their broods 
of young, which feed on a kind of fungus growing on the 
walls of the galleries. The growth of this ambrosia-like 
fungus is induced and controlled by the parent beetles, 
and the young are dependent upon it for food. The wood 
must be in exactly the proper condition for the growth 
of the fungus in order to attract the beetles and induce 
them to excavate their galleries ; it must have a certain 
degree of moisture and other favorable qualities, which 
usually prevail during the period involved in the change 
from living, or normal, to dead or dry wood ; such a con- 
dition is found in recently felled trees, sawlogs, or like 
crude products. There are two general types or classes 
of these galleries: one in which the broods develop to- 
gether in the main burrows (Fig. 17), the other in which 
the individuals develop in short, separate side chambers, 
extending at right angles from the primary galleries. 
(Fig. 18.) The galleries of the latter type are usually 
accompanied by a distinct staining of the wood, while 
those of the former are not. The beetles responsible for 
this work are cylindrical in form, apparently with a 
head (the prothorax) half as long as the remainder of 
the body. (Figs. 17, a, and 18, a.) North American 
species vary in size from less than one-tenth to slightly 
more than two-tenths of an inch, while some of the sub- 



ENEMIES OF WOOD 



75 



tropical and tropical species attain a much larger size. 
The diameter of the holes made by each species cor- 
responds closely to that of the body, and varies from 
about one-twentieth to one-sixteenth of an inch for the 
tropical species. 

BOUND-HEADED BOBEBS 

The character of the work of this class of wood and 
bark-boring grubs is shown in Fig. 19. The injuries con- 




Fig. 19. Work of Round-headed and Flat-headed Borers in Pine: a, 
work of round-headed borer, "sawyer," Monohammus sp., natural size; 
6, Ergatcs spiculatus; c, work of flat-headed borer, Buprestis, larva 
and adult; d, bark; e, sap wood; f, heartwood. 

sist of irregular flattened or nearly round wormhole de- 
fects in the wood, which sometimes result in the destruc- 
tion of the valuable parts of wood or bark material. The 
sapwood and heartwood of recently felled trees, sawlogs, 
poles, posts, mine props, pulpwood and cordwood, also 
lumber or square timber, with bark on the edges, and 
construction timber in new and old buildings, are injured 
by wormhole defects, while the valuable parts of stored 



76 



COOPEEAGE 



oak and hemlock tanbark and certain kinds of wood are 
converted into worm-dust. These injuries are caused by 
the young or larvae of long-horned beetles. Those which 
infest the wood hatch from eggs deposited in the outer 
bark of logs and like material, and the minute grubs 
hatching therefrom bore into the inner bark, through 
which they extend their irregular burrows, for the pur- 
pose of obtaining food from the sap and other nutritive 
material found in the plant tissue. They continue to 




Fig. 20. Work of Timber Worms in Oak: a, work of oak timber worm, 
Eupsalis minutaj b, barked surface; c, bark; d, sapwood timber worm, 
Hyloccetus lugubris, and work; e, sapwood. 



extend and enlarge their burrows as they increase in size, 
until they are nearly or quite full grown. They then 
enter the wood and continue their excavations deep into 
the sapwood or heartwood until they attain their normal 
size. They then excavate pupa cells in which to trans- 
form into adults, which emerge from the wood through 
exit holes in the surface. This class of borers is repre- 
sented by a large number of species. The adults, how- 



ENEMIES OF WOOD 77 

ever, are seldom seen by the general observer unless cut 
out of the wood before they have emerged. 

FLAT-HEADED BOKERS 

The work of the flat-headed borers (Fig. 19) is only dis- 
tinguished from that of the preceding by the broad, shal- 
low burrows, and the much more oblong form of the exit 
holes. In general, the injuries are similar, and affect the 
same class of products, but they are of much less impor- 
tance. The adult forms are flattened, metallic-colored 
beetles, and represent many species, of various sizes. 

TIMBER WORMS 

The character of the work done by this class is shown 
in Fig. 20. The injury consists of pinhole defects in 
the sapwood and heartwood of felled trees, sawlogs and 
like material which have been left in the woods or in piles 
in the open for several months during the warmer sea- 
sons. Stave and shingle bolts and closely piled oak lum- 
ber and square timbers also suffer from injury of this 
kind. These injuries are made by elongate, slender 
worms or larvae, which hatch from eggs deposited by the 
adult beetles in the outer bark, or, where there is no bark, 
just beneath the surface of the wood. At first the young 
larvae bore almost invisible holes for a long distance 
through the sapwood and heartwood, but as they increase 
in size the same holes are enlarged and extended until 
the larvae have attained their full growth. They then 
transform to adults, and emerge through the enlarged 
entrance burrows. The work of these timber worms is 
distinguished from that of the timber beetles by the 
greater variation in the size of holes in the same piece 
of wood, also by the fact that they are not branched from 
a single entrance or gallery, as are those made by the 
beetles. 



78 



COOPERAGE 



POWDER POST BORERS 



The character of work of this class of insects is shown 
in Figs. 21, 22 and 23. The injury consists of closely 
placed barrows, packed with borings, or a completely de- 




v-OL. 



Fig. 21. Work of Powder Post Beetle, Sinoxylon basilare, in Hickory 
Poles, showing transverse egg galleries excavated by the adult; a, en- 
trance; b, gallery; c, adult. 



stroyed or powdered condition of the wood of seasoned 
products, such as lumber, crude and finished handle and 
wagon stock, cooperage and wooden truss hoops, fur- 



b. 



a. 




Fig. 22. Work of Powder Post Beetle, Sinoocylon basilare, in Hickory 
Pole: a, character of work by larvae; 6, exit holes made by emerging 
broods. 



niture, and inside finish woodwork, in old buildings, as 
well as in many other crude or finished and utilized woods. 
This is the work of both the adults and young stages of 
some species, or of the larval stage alone of others. In 



ENEMIES OF WOOD 



79 



the former, the adult beetles deposit their eggs in bur- 
rows or galleries excavated for the purpose, as in Figs. 
21 and 22, while in the latter 
(Fig. 23) the eggs are on or be- 
neath the surface of the wood. 
The grubs complete the de- 
struction by boring through the 
solid wood in all directions and 
packing their burrows with the 
powdered wood. When they 
are full grown they transform 
to the adult, and emerge from 
the injured material through 
holes in the surface. Some of 
the species continue to work 
in the same wood until- many 
generations have developed 
and emerged, or until every 
particle of wood tissue has 
been destroyed and the avail- 
able nutritive substance ex- 
tracted. 



CONDITIONS FAVORABLE FOR IN- 
SECT INJURY CRUDE PROD- 
UCTS ROUND TIMBER WITH 

BARK ON 




Fig. 23 Work of Powder 
Post Beetle, Lycttisstriatus, 
in Hickory Handles and 
Spokes: a, larva; b, pupa; 
c, adult; d, exit holes; e, en- 
trance of larvae (vents for bor- 
ings are exits of parasites); 
/, work of larvae; g, wood, 
completely destroyed; h, sap- 

ground or in close piles dur- wood; »'• fceartwood. 

ing a few weeks or months in the spring or summer, 

causing them to heat and sweat, are especially liable to 



Newly felled trees, sawlogs, 
stave and heading bolts, tele- 
graph poles, posts, and the 
like material, cut in the fall 
and winter, and left on the 



80 COOPEKAGE 

injury by ambrosia beetles (Figs. 17 and 18), round and 
flat-headed borers (Fig. 19), and timber worms (Fig. 20), 
as are also trees felled in the warm season, and left for 
a time before working up into lumber. The proper de- 
gree of moisture found in freshly cut living or dying 
wood, and the period when the insects are flying, are 
the conditions most favorable for attack. This period 
of danger varies with the time of the year the timber is 
felled and with the different kinds of trees. Those felled 
in late fall and winter will generally remain attractive 
to ambrosia beetles, and to the adults of round and flat- 
headed borers during March, April and May. Those felled 
in April to September may be attacked in a few days 
after they are felled, and the period of danger may not 
extend over more than a few weeks. Certain kinds of 
trees felled during certain months and seasons are never 
attacked, because the danger period prevails only when 
the insects are flying ; on the other hand, if the same kinds 
of trees are felled at a different time, the conditions may 
be most attractive when the insects are active, and they 
will be thickly infested and ruined. The presence of bark 
is absolutely necessary for infestation by most of the 
wood-boring grubs, since the eggs and young stages must 
occupy the outer and inner portions before they can enter 
the wood. Some ambrosia beetles and timber worms will, 
however, attack barked logs, especially those in close 
piles, and others shaded and protected from rapid drying. 
The sapwood of pine, spruce, fir, cedar, cypress, and like 
softwoods is especially liable to injury by ambrosia 
beetles, while the heartwood is sometimes ruined by a 
class of round-headed borers, known as * ' sawyers. ' ' Yel- 
low poplar, oak, chestnut, gum, hickory, and most other 
hardwoods are as a rule attacked by species of ambrosia 
beetles, sawyers, and timber worms, different from those 
infesting the pines, there being but very few species 



ENEMIES OF WOOD 81 

which attack both. Mahogany and other rare and valuable 
woods imported from the tropics to this country in the 
form of round logs, with or without bark on, are com- 
monly damaged more or less seriously by ambrosia 
beetles and timber worms. It .would appear from the 
writer's investigations of logs received at the mills in 
this country, that the principal damage is done during a 
limited period — from the time the trees are felled until 
they are placed in fresh or salt water for transporta- 
tion to the shipping points. If, however, the logs are 
loaded on the vessel direct from the shore, or if not left 
in the water long enough to kill the insects, the latter 
will continue their destructive work during transporta- 
tion to this country and after they arrive, and until cold 
weather ensues or the logs are converted into lumber. 
It was also found that a thorough soaking in sea-water, 
while it usually killed the insects at the time, did not pre- 
vent subsequent attacks by both foreign and native am- 
brosia beetles; also, that the removal of the bark from 
such logs previous to their immersion did not render them 
entirely immune. Those with the bark off were attacked 
more than those with it on, owing to the greater amount 
of saline moisture retained by the bark. 

HOW TO PREVENT INJURY 

From the foregoing it will be seen that some requisites 
for preventing these insect injuries to round timber are : 

1. To provide for as little delay as possible between 
the felling of the tree and its manufacture into rough 
products. This is especially necessary with trees felled 
from April to September, in the region north of the Gulf 
States, and from March to November in the latter, while 
the late fall and winter cutting should all be Vorked up 
by March or April. 

2. If the round timber must be left in the woods or on 



82 COOPERAGE 

the skidways during the danger period, every precaution 
should be taken to facilitate rapid drying of the inner 
bark, by keeping the logs off the ground, in the sun, or 
in loose piles; or else the opposite extreme should be 
adopted and the logs kept in water. 

3. The immediate removal of all the bark from poles, 
posts and other material which will not be seriously dam- 
aged by checking or season cracks. 

4. To determine and utilize the proper months or sea- 
sons to girdle or fell different kinds of trees. Bald cy- 
press in the swamps of the South are girdled in order that 
they may die, and in a few weeks or months dry out and 
become light enough to float. This method has been ex- 
tensively adopted in sections where it is the only prac- 
ticable one by which the timber can be transported to 
the sawmills. It is found, however, that some of these 
girdled trees are especially attractive to several species of 
ambrosia beetles (Figs. 17 and 18), round-headed borers 
(Fig. 19) and timber worms (Fig. 20), which cause seri- 
ous injury to the sapwood or heartwood, while other trees 
girdled at a different time or season are not injured. 
This suggested to the writer the importance of experi- 
ments to determine the proper time to girdle trees to 
avoid losses, and they are now being conducted on an 
extensive scale by the Forest Service, in co-operation 
with prominent cypress operators in different sections 
of the cypress-growing region. 

SAPLIXGS 

Saplings, including hickory and other round hoop- 
poles and similar products, are subject to serious injuries 
and destruction by round and flat-headed borers (Fig. 
19), and certain species of powder post borers (Figs. 21 
and 22) before the bark and wood are dead or dry, and 
also by other powder post borers (Fig. 23) after they 



ENEMIES OF WOOD 83 

are dried and seasoned. The conditions favoring attack 
by the former class are those resulting from leaving the 
poles in piles or bundles in or near the forest for a few 
weeks during the season of insect activity, and by the 
latter from leaving them stored in one place for several 
months. 

STAVE, HEADING AND SHINGLE BOLTS 

These are attacked by ambrosia beetles (Figs. 17 and 
18), and the oak timber worm (Fig 20, a), which, as has 
been frequently reported, cause serious losses. The con- 
ditions favoring attack by these insects are similar to 
those mentioned under "Round Timber." The insects 
may enter the wood before the bolts are cut from the log 
or afterward, especially if the bolts are left in moist, 
shady places in the woods, in close piles during the dan- 
ger period. If cut during the warm season, the bark 
should be removed and the bolts converted into the small- 
est practicable size and piled in such a manner as to 
facilitate rapid drying. 

UNSEASONED PEODUCTS IN THE ROUGH 

Freshly sawn hardwood, placed in close piles during 
warm, damp weather in July and September, presents 
especially favorable conditions for injury by ambrosia 
beetles (Figs. 17, a, and 18, a). This is due to the con- 
tinued moist condition of such material. Heavy two-inch 
or three-inch stuff is also liable to attack even in loose 
piles with lumber or cross sticks. An example of the 
latter was found in a valuable lot of mahogany lumber 
of first grade, the value of which was reduced two-thirds 
by injury from a native ambrosia beetle. Numerous com- 
plaints have been received from different sections of the 
country of this class of injury to oak, poplar, gum and 
other hardwoods. In all cases it is the moist condition 
and retarded drying of the lumber which induces attack ; 
therefore, any method which will provide for the rapid 



84 



COOPERAGE 



drying of the wood before or after piling will tend to 
prevent losses. It is important that heavy lumber should, 
as far as possible, be cut in the winter months and piled 
so that it will be well dried out before the middle of 




y*-xf 



Fig. 24. Work of Round-headed Borer, Callidium antennatum, in White 
Pine Bucket Staves from New Hampshire: a, where egg was depos- 
ited in bark; b, larval mine; c, pupal cell; d, exit in bark; e, adult. 



March. Square timber, stave and heading bolts, with 
the bark on, often suffer from injuries by flat or round- 
headed borers, hatching from eggs deposited in the bark 
of the logs before they are sawed and piled. One example 
of serious damage and loss was reported in which white 



ENEMIES OF WOOD 85 

pine staves for paint buckets and other small wooden 
vessels, which had been sawed from small logs, and the 
bark left on the edges, were attacked by a round-headed 
borer, the adults having deposited their eggs in the bark 
after the stock was sawn and piled. The character of 
the injury is shown in Fig. 24. Another example was 
reported from a manufacturer in the South, where the 
pieces of lumber which had a strip of bark on one side 
were seriously damaged by the same kind of borer, the 
eggs having been deposited in the logs before sawing or 
in the bark after the lumber was piled. If the eggs are 
deposited in the logs, and the borers have entered the 
inner bark or the wood before sawing, they may continue 
their work regardless of methods of piling; but if such 
lumber is cut from new logs and placed in the pile while 
green, with the bark surface up, it will be much less 
liable to attack than if piled with the bark down. This 
liability of lumber with bark edges or sides to be attacked 
by insects suggests the importance of the removal of the 
bark, to prevent damage, or, if this is not practicable, 
the lumber with the bark on the sides should be piled 
in open, loose piles with the bark up, while that with the 
bark on the edges should be placed on the outer edge 
of the piles, exposed to the light and air. A moist con- 
dition of lumber and square timber, such as results from 
close or solid piles, with the bottom layers on the ground 
or on a foundation of old decaying logs or near decaying 
stumps and logs, offers especially favorable conditions 
for the attack of white ants. 

SEASONED PEODTJCTS IN THE ROUGH 

Seasoned or dry timber in stacks or storage is liable 
to injury by powder post borers. (Fig. 23.) The con- 
ditions favoring attack are: (1) The presence of a large 
proportion of sapwood, as in hickory, ash, and similar 



86 COOPERAGE 

woods; (2) material which is two or more years old, or 
that which has been kept in one place for a long time; 
(3) access to old infested material. Therefore, such stock 
should be frequently examined for evidence of the pres- 
ence of these insects. This is always indicated by fine, 
flour-like powder on or beneath the piles, or otherwise 
associated with such material. All infested material 
should be at once removed and the infested parts de- 
stroyed by burning. 

DEY COOPEKAGE STOCK AND WOODEN TKUSS HOOPS 

These are especially liable to attack and serious injury 
by powder post borers (Fig. 23), under the same or sim- 
ilar conditions as the preceding. 

STAVES AND HEADS OF BARRELS CONTAINING ALCOHOLIC LIQUIDS 

These are liable to attack by ambrosia beetles (Figs. 
17, a and 18, a), which are attracted by the moist condition 
and possibly by the peculiar odor of the wood, resembling 
that of dying sapwood of trees and logs, which is their 
normal breeding place. There are many examples on 
record of serious losses of liquors from leakage caused 
by the beetles boring through the staves and heads of 
the barrels and casks in cellars and storerooms. The 
condition, in addition to the moisture of the wood, which 
is favorable for the presence of the beetles, is proximity 
to their breeding places, such as the trunks and stumps 
of recently felled or dying oak, maple and other hardwood 
or deciduous trees; lumber yards, sawmills, freshly cut 
cordwood, from living or dead trees, and forests of hard- 
wood timber. Under such conditions the beetles occur 
in great numbers, and if the storerooms and cellars in 
which the barrels are kept stored are damp, poorly venti- 
lated, and readily accessible to them, serious injury is 
almost certain to follow. 



SECTION III 



FOREST FIRES 



FOREST FIRES 



FIRES THE GREATEST ENEMY OF FORESTS 

GENERAL REMARKS 

Of the many destructive agencies at work in the forests 
of the United States, fire holds first place, and the loss 
which it inflicts equals, if it does not surpass, that from 
all other causes combined. Insect hordes occasionally 
destroy large areas of valuable forest growth; wasteful 
and short-sighted lumbering methods, resulting from in- 




l^Nl^fof^ '^ 



Fig. 25. View of Land Burned Over every Year. 



90 COOPERAGE 

volved economic conditions, have brought about the rapid 
conversion of much of the finest timberlands into unpro- 
ductive barrens; and in the far West, excessive and 
unrestricted grazing has seriously reduced the regenerat- 
ing power of the forest, and exposed vast areas to injury 
by flood and erosion. But great as is the damage from 
these causes, compared with fire they are of secondary 
importance. Further, it is to the fires which usually 
precede, accompany, or follow these other agencies that 
their most serious consequences are often due. Insect 
attacks often follow when fire has killed or reduced the 
vitality of timber ; the cut-over timber lands of the Great 
Lakes and other regions , would not present such a dis- 
couraging aspect had not fire killed the seed trees and 
young growth (see Fig. 25), which otherwise would have 
survived even the most pernicious logging enterprises; 
and in the forests of the West fire again is a potent source 
of difficulty in adjusting the conflicting claims of the 
grazing, timber, and water interests. 

SOME ESTIMATES OF LOSSES FKOM FIEE 

Certain as it is that fire is the greatest of forest evils, 
there exists comparatively little accurate knowledge on 
which to base an estimate of the total loss from this 
source. This is due, not to lack of interest so much as to 
the immensity of the field, and the complex character of 
the problem which the attempt to make such an estimate 
presents. Losses of mill and logging machinery, lumber, 
cordwood, merchantable standing timber, and other prop- 
erty of staple market value can be closely determined 
by individual losers ; but when attempts are made to com- 
bine even these definite losses for a State, or for the 
United States, the result becomes a rough estimate, if not 
a matter of mere conjecture. Nevertheless, it is indis- 
putable that these losses are enormous, and that, for the 



FOREST FIRES 



91 



country as a whole, they run high into the millions. No 
less serious, though incapable of money valuation, is the 
indirect loss due to the destruction of young growth, 
which is to form our future forests. To this must be 
added the injury to the forest soil, caused by the burning 
out of the vegetable matter, indispensable to healthy tree 




Fig. 26. Effects of a Forest Fire. 



growth. (See Fig. 26.) The most conservative estimates 
put the average annual loss from forest fires at above 
$25,000,000. More exact estimates are available for lim- 
ited regions. For example, a careful estimate made on 
the ground after the terrific Washington and Oregon fires 
of 1902 showed a loss in nine days of $12,000,000 worth 



92 COOPERAGE 

of forest property. New York State in the spring of 
1903 suffered from unusually severe fires in the Adiron- 
dacks, involving a direct loss estimated at $3,500,000, in 
addition to a known expense for fire fighting of $175,000. 

LOSSES FKOM FIRE WHICH AKE NOT USUALLY CONSIDERED 

The severest consequences do not result from these 
great conflagrations, which partake of the nature of 
national calamities. Beyond question it is the smaller, 
unnoted fires which in the aggregate inflict the most 
serious damage upon the forests of the United States. 
And this damage is for the most part of a kind from the 
very nature of the case incapable of exact calculation. 
In the first place, much fine timber in this country has 
at present no money value because it is not now acces- 
sible. In the second place, the injury which the forest 
suffers is far greater than that covered by the stumpage 
value of the standing merchantable timber. Generally 
the lumberman is immediately concerned only with that 
part of the fire loss which includes the destruction of 
timber and lumber that he can sell, and of milling or 
logging property in the woods. The annihilation of 
young growth, and the lowering of the forest's water con- 
serving and regenerative powers, do not appear in the 
profit and loss column of his books. From the point of 
view of the public interest, the effect of fires on forest 
reproduction and water conservation is far more impor- 
tant than the destruction of mature timber. Yet the im- 
possibility of even approximately determining the former 
losses makes them appear less real. Save in limited 
regions, young forest growth has no recognized value; 
consequently its destruction by fire is not an appreciated 
financial loss. In view of the growing scarcity of timber, 
and of the almost inevitable changes in the general field 
of forestry, it is safe to prophesy that in the near future 



FOREST FIRES 93 

the value of young growth will be definitely recognized. 
Nevertheless, lumbermen have not as yet generally rec- 
ognized it nor taken steps to encourage or protect such 
growth. (Fig. 52.) 

CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT FIRE LOSSES 

The extent to which lumbering interests suffer from 
fire depends largely on the region in which they conduct 
their operations. Broad statements concerning this are 
subject to exceptions, yet in general it is true that Pacific 
Coast lumbermen suffer most, and those in the Southern 
hardwoods least, while the losses of operators in the 
Lake States and the Northeast fall between the two. The 
Pacific Coast lumber manufacturer is the heaviest loser, 
not only because the fires are more severe, but also be- 
cause his mills and yards are located in the heart of the 
forest, since he cannot -" drive " the streams. In Cal- 
ifornia and eastward, surface fires prevail in the virgin 
forests, but rarely destroy extensive stands of timber, 
although individual trees are severely injured and 
killed. In the Northeast and Great Lakes States fires 
commonly do not reach their maximum of injury until the 
lumberman has left ; hence, he is not so great a sufferer. 
In the Southern pineries the frequently occurring grass 
fires are rarely severe and are seldom troublesome to the 
lumberman. Old turpentine orchards, where the boxes 
and excoriated surfaces expose the trees to fire injury, 
are the exception. Such timber, however, is usually pur- 
chased at a low figure and cut before fire does it material 
damage. 

ERRONEOUS IDEAS CONCERNING EFFECTS OF FIRES 

The effect of surface and brush fires in large timber is 
more serious than generally supposed. The prevailing 
opinion is that mature timber is not injured by such fires, 
and this has created among lumbermen a feeling of in- 



94 



COOPERAGE 



difference to their occurrence. Few fires in a forest are 
so slight as to produce no ill effects. Though most of the 
trees may escape with only a slight blackening or char- 
ring of the bark, there are inevitably others which are 




Fig. 27. Black Gum still Alive, though Burned to a Shell. Damage 

done by a fire. 



killed or injured at the base by the burning of brush and 
debris accumulated about the trunk, or by the fire catch- 
ing in a break in the bark. (See Fig. 27.) Each successive 
fire adds its percentage of injury, while all damaged trees 



FOREST FIRES 95 

are rendered less wind firm. Even in the Southern pines, 
where the fire injury is near the minimum, the cumulative 
damage is surprisingly great. The Bureau of Forestry 
at Washington, D. C, have obtained figures which show 
that in a turpentine orchard of Florida long-leaf pine, 
abandoned for five years, thirty- three per cent, of the 
trees above a diameter of one inch were found dead or 
down, mainly as a result of a fire, while only one-half of 
one per cent, of the remaining boxed trees were unburned. 
The damage in unboxed long-leaf pine of the same region 
was much less serious, eighty-two per cent, of the stand 
being sound. Throughout California the opinion so 
largely prevails that fires in virgin timber are compar- 
ativelv harmless, that lumbermen allow them to run un- 
less they threaten their mills or are likely to spread to 
"slashings," in dangerous proximity to valuable timber. 
This, too, in face of the fact that nothing is more notice- 
able in the Sierra forests that the burned-out bases of 
many of the finest sugar and yellow pines. Figures ob- 
tained in the logging camps of a lumber company in 
Tehama County, Cal., show that the "long-butting" ne- 
cessitated by the burns in the base logs amounts to about 
4% per cent, of the total cut, which is a direct loss of 
this amount. This does not include the loss in high 
stumps, where the cut is made above the burn, nor allow 
for the deduction from the actual scale reading in par- 
tially burned-out logs, nor for the inferior lumber near 
the burns, where the heat has hardened the pitch. In 
addition to this, many trees have burned down or have 
been thrown by wind as a consequence of the fire. 

VIEWS OF LUMBEEMEN CONCERNING FOREST FIRES 

The general attitude of lumbermen toward forest fires 
is one of hopelessness, coupled in a measure with indif- 
ference. Fires were not unknown prior to the days of 



96 COOPERAGE 

settlement, but since the commercial exploitation of the 
forests began they have increased in number and severity, 
until now they are regarded as inevitable. Considering 
the many causes from which forest fires spring, the dif- 
ficulty of quickly locating and suppressing them in the 
incipient stages, and the tremendous and often impos- 
sible task of stopping a fire when it has gained full head- 
way, it is not to be wondered at that the lumberman has 
taken rather a hopeless view of the matter. -Furthermore, 
fire-fighting and even crude measures of protection re- 
quire an outlay which could not have been borne during 
the earlier lumbering period. There has been, too, an un- 
fulfilled State dutv, which has added to the lumberman's 
burden. Large sums raised by taxes on forest lands 
have been going into the State treasuries, yet until very 
recent years no intelligent effort has been made to assist 
timber owners to protect their holdings. While lumber- 
men should have done more for themselves, the laws 
which should have given them encouragement and assist- 
ance have been wanting or totally inadequate. The atti- 
tude of indifference which has been shown by lumbermen 
in many instances is far less excusable than their belief 
in the impossibility of fire protection. Eealizing the fire 
danger, they have deliberately ignored all sides of the 
question save that of the most temporary, and have taken 
the best from the land and abandoned the rest to destruc- 
tion by fires, which often threatened or destroyed the 
adjoining property of others. The only justification for 
this has been the economic conditions which have made 
the suppression of fire incompatible with profitable lum- 
bering. 

CHANGED CONDITIONS 

Before the awakening to the needs and possibilities of 
forestry, and when the forests were considered inexhaust- 
ible, indifference and inaction when forest fires occurred 



FOREST FIRES 97 

was not unnatural. These conditions, however, are now of 
the past. The end of the virgin timber supply is in sight, 
and the improved tone of the lumber market is enabling 
lumbermen to dispose of inferior material, and to realize 
better prices for all grades. These changes are making 
it profitable for timber owners to cut more conservatively, 
and to hold their land for future timber production. In 
pursuing such a policy, fire protection and the systematic 
disposal of "slash" by methods which will result in the 
minimum of injury to young growth and seed trees must 
follow. It is most encouraging that many large lumber 
concerns, especially in the West, are favoring the adop- 
tion of such a policy, and in a few cases are putting it 
into practice. In short, lumbermen are beginning seri- 
ously to consider the advantages of long-continued man- 
agement of timber lands^ in place of the policy of tem- 
porary speculative holdings, upon which their operations 
have hitherto been based. With this change in general 
management must come an entirely altered sentiment 
toward forest fires. They can no longer be ignored, but 
must be intelligently and systematically guarded against. 

FIRE PROTECTION ON PRIVATE LANDS 

Without adequate fire protection the practice of for- 
estry on private timber lands will not give the desired 
results. The leaving of seed trees and modified lumber- 
ing methods for the purpose of securing natural repro- 
duction, which is liable to ultimate destruction by fire, 
appeals neither to the lumberman nor to the forester. 
Even assuming a recognized market value for young 
growth, there can be little incentive for encouraging or 
holding it as long as a constant fire menace remains; 
hence it follows that fire protection is a fundamental 
necessity in all plans for forest management on private 
holdings. 



98 COOPERAGE 

Definite plans for fire protection should precede or ac- 
company all working plans for forest lands, and in most 
cases fire plans alone will give results which will fully 
justify their application. It is surprising that individual 
timber owners have done so little for themselves in mat- 
ters of fire protection, especially in view of the fact that 
it is largely a local problem, and can be most satisfacto- 
rily dealt with as such. Adequate protection is undeniably 
a complex and difficult task. It is, however, no greater 
than many of the logging, milling and transportation 
difficulties which have been successfully surmounted. It 
has been neglected merely because financial success has 
not been dependent upon it. The enterprise and ingenu- 
ity of American lumbermen is world renowned. For the 
cheap and rapid manufacture of lumber, cooperage ma- 
terial, etc., they have developed marvellous mechanical 
devices. But in matters of fire protection they are still 
little further advanced than were the pioneers of the 
industry. Indeed, by opening up the forests and leaving 
large quantities of inflammable debris, they have rather 
increased the fire danger. As it was fifty years ago, so 
it is to-day. No attention is paid to fires until they reach 
dangerous proportions; then they are fought with char- 
acteristic American energy. The mills are often shut 
clown, all available men are employed to fight the flames, 
and the fire is usually controlled, but at great expense. 
The more rational and business-like and in the end the 
more economical method, systematic preventive measures 
and preparation for promptly extinguishing small fires, 
has seldom been employed. 

NEW DEPAKTTJEES IN" DEALING WITH' THE FIRE PROBLEM 

In keeping with the changed conditions already men- 
tioned, the result of which must be to compel a departure 
from the old methods, made possible by an abundance of 



FOREST FIRES 99 

timber, there has of late been evinced a growing dispo- 
sition to introduce fire protection on forest lands. This 
has taken the form in some cases of actual attempts to 
prevent fire from running through mature timber, or 
young growth and to reduce the fire danger by.carefully 
burning "slash." The greatest difficulty at present is 
lack of knowledge of how to attain these ends. 

BURNING SLASH OK KEFTJSE 

Several lumber companies in various regions have at- 
tempted to burn the "slash" on cut-over land, but have 
not developed a wholly successful system. The owner of 
an enormous tract of virgin timber in Northern Cali- 
fornia has employed men to rake away the debris from 
the larger sugar and yellow pines, and to throw fresh dirt 
into the cavities previously burned in the bases of the 
trunks. The same plan lias been tried on a small area 
of long-leaf pine near Ocilla, Ga. Such a procedure will 
give temporary protection from surface fires, but it leaves 
all young growth open to destruction and does not get 
at the root of the evil. The idea has hitherto prevailed 
that in order to burn "slash" successfully the tops must 
be lopped and the limbs and other debris piled. This has 
made the process too expensive for general adoption. 
As to burning "slash" as it lies, it has been proven that 
by selecting favorable weather conditions and burning 
in small blocks or broad lines the fires can be easily con- 
trolled. Promising clumps of young growth and seed 
trees will be protected by clearing around them before 
the fires are started. Under no condition should there 
be indiscriminate firing of slash, regardless of method, 
and without competent supervision. 

PLAN FOE PROTECTING MATTJEE TIMBER 

On the California timber lands of a large match com- 
pany, a plan of fire protection, prepared by the Bureau 



100 COOPERAGE 

of Forestry, was in operation during the year 1904. The 
results at the close of the season were very satisfactory. 
No serious fires occurred, a marked contrast to the record 
of recent years, prior to the application of the plan. In 
addition to an annual systematized burning of the slash 
on the land logged during the year, the plan provides 
for a system of trails and telephone lines, whereby all 
fires may be reported and reached promptly, a lookout 
station at a commanding point of view, a regular patrol 
during the dry season, the posting of warning notices, 
the storing of fire-fighting tools at convenient points, and 
the working up of an anti-fire sentiment among employees 
and local inhabitants. With the growing desire for fire 
protection, the general practices here found successful 
should, with modifications to suit local requirements, find 
application elsewhere. 

THE QUESTION OF SECOND GEOWTH 

Assuming that the lumberman finds it advisable to pro- 
tect his mature timber and burn his slash, the question 
arises, can he afford to protect the young growth on the 
cut-over land, or to hold the land for the second crop! 
It is an undeniable fact that young forest growth in gen- 
eral has no sale value, although in the eyes of the forester 
its prospective value is considerable. (See Fig. 52.) It 
thus follows that under the present system of taxing 
forest lands, and in the face of a constant fire danger, 
there is little encouragement for lumbermen to hold sec- 
ond growth or to invest money in its protection. Despite 
these discouraging facts, many lumbermen are retaining 
their cut-over lands and manifest a desire to preserve 
the second growth. But no active measures to protect 
it have been taken except in a few cases, such as those 
just mentioned. It is not so much the uncertainty of 
returns, as the danger that all will be lost by fire, that pre- 



FOREST FIRES 101 

vents the general retention of lands more suitable for 
timber production than for agriculture. 



FOREST FIRES 



THEIE CAUSE ATSTD PEEVEISTTTOZST 

One of the chief causes of disastrous forest fires (see 
Fig. 26) lies in the result of protracted drought. The 
forest becomes inflammable. Thus on cut-over lands the 
debris left after lumbering is in condition to catch fire 
like tinder and to spread it almost like a powder maga- 
zine. Every chance spark left unextinguished by smoker 
or camper, every glowing cinder from locomotive or 
brush-burner's fire, carries the potentiality of a great con- 
flagration. During the season when fishermen and hunt- 
ers are enjoying their sport, many build camp-fires and 
smudges in every direction, and proceed on their way 
without properly extinguishing them. Under such con- 
ditions many incipient forest fires are, and always will 
be inevitable. The only hope of preventing devastation 
is through systematic watchfulness to extinguish every 
little blaze before it has time to gather headway. In gen- 
eral these fires burn rapidly, owing to the inflammable 
condition of the forest. They are either "crown," "sur- 
face" or "ground," the type of fire varying with the 
character of the forest and the strength of the wind. 
Usually fires begin on the surface, spreading among the 
leaves and dead branches. Where deep, dry duff is en- 
countered, combustion works to the bottom of the half 
peaty mass, stealing along, sometimes without much evi- 
dence, above ground, possible even days or weeks, later 
to develop into a "surface" or "crown fire" under favor- 
able conditions. Among conifers, with their inflammable 



102 COOPERAGE 

foliage, surface fires frequently mount to the tops of the 
trees, and thus become "crown fires." This is the most 
dangerous and unmanageable form of fire, on account of 
the great surface offered to combustion, and also because 
of the powerful draft caused by the rising of the heated 
air, which fans the flames to uncontrollable fury. Such 
fires travel with remarkable speed. Culpable careless- 
ness is responsible for the largest part of our forest fires, 
deliberate incendiarism for no small number, and un- 
avoidable accident for a few. Inexcusable negligence and 
disregard of legal requirements and the rights of adjoin- 
ing property have been charged against the railroads. 
Fully one-half of the fires due to carelessness are caused 
by the locomotive. A good many fires are also set by 
logging railways. The laws require the equipment of 
locomotives with spark arresters and the observance of 
other precautions against fires. Should the railroads be 
compelled to adopt these safeguards, much loss would be 
averted. The railroads themselves will be heavy suffer- 
ers in the long run from the devastation for which they 
are so largely responsible. Next to railroads, "fallow- 
ing," or the clearing of land, by burning debris left after 
lumbering, is probably the most prolific source of fires. 
As usual, many fires are started through the carelessness 
of smokers. Smudges and camp-fires imperfectly ex- 
tinguished cause their full share of damage. The forms 
of neglect or carelessness outlined above are responsible 
for a very large percentage of damage done. 

METHODS OF FIGHTING SAME 

The most effective fighting against forest fires can be 
done from daybreak until about nine o 'clock in the morn- 
ing. The fires are usually much deadened at this time 
of day, and the fighters should take advantage of this 
fact, resting* or acting chiefly on the defensive in the 



FOREST FIRES 103 

middle of the day, and renewing the attack toward eve- 
ning, when the fires again lose some of their aggressive- 
ness. Surface fires can be checked bv raking away the 
litter on the forest floor in a path a few feet wide, which 
serves as a line of defense from which the fire can be 
fought back as it approaches. "Where water can be ob- 
tained the path should be thoroughly wet down. Shovel- 
fuls of sand dashed upon the blazing wood will also have 
a deadening effect, and burning grass in the clearings 
can be thrashed out with the bushy top of a young spruce 
or balsam, or a few furrows should be turned with a 
plough across the track of the fire. Usually the presence 
of duff makes it necessary to dig a trench from one to 
four feet wide down to the mineral soil, and completely 
encircling the fire. The roots should be cut through with 
axes and mattocks, and the mass of peaty material 
chopped up and shovelled out and sand or dirt heaped 
against the outer side of the trench, to protect the duff 
from sparks and heat. When the fire burns through the 
inner side, where these methods fail or cannot be used, 
back-firing should be resorted to. Trenches should be 
dug from two to four feet wide, and the fire applied to 
the side next the forest fire. If the trenches can be de- 
fended successfully for a short time, the fires thus set 
will burn a distance back from the trench, thus clearing 
away much of the combustible matter and robbing the 
conflagration of its energy when the two lines of fire meet. 
This is a very effective method of fighting forest fires, 
but extreme caution is necessary in its use. 



SECTION IV 



SAWS 



SAWS 



GENEKAL SAW HSTSTKUCTIONS 



The successful fitting of saws is directly dependent 
upon these two essentials : a well-equipped filing room and 
a capable saw-filer, possessed of a moderate amount of 
"horse sense" in charge of it. Saws do not run or fit 
themselves, and they require the proper amount of care 
and attention in order that they may produce a maximum 
quantity and improved quality of output on a minimum 
saw kerf. Therefore, it is an unwise economy that does 
not provide both essentials. And the most successful 
mill and factory operators of to-day consider it good 
practice and a profitable investment to supply every tool 
or appliance calculated to facilitate the filer's work. 

Every operator of a cooperage plant has more or less 
of a substantial investment in factory and saws. His 
profits depend largely upon his finished product being 
well manufactured and with the least amount of waste 
possible. This cannot be accomplished unless his sawing 
equipment receives constant care and attention. He 
spends money for saws which for some operators run 
finely and last for years, until worn out, while for others 
they run indifferently and only last for as many weeks, 
when they are utterly worthless from cracks or other 
defective conditions, caused by lack of proper care and 
in some instances by gross carelessness ; and the product 
turned out is of an indifferent quality, while the per- 
centage of waste is enormous. This is probably the sug- 
gestion of "no swage," "no sharpener," "irregular ten- 
sioning, ' ' etc. ; or if such tools are in use, they are indif- 



108 COOPERAGE 

ferently used, are defective, out of repair, or inefficient 
in operation. It is manifestly true that not all mill men 
can carry on their business with equal success and profit, 
but it is a self-evident truth to the well-informed that 
the best results obtainable from saws are contingent upon 
their being properly sharpened, swaged, tensioned, etc. ; 
results which are obtainable only by close attention to 
details in the operation of fitting a saw for its particular 
duty. 

SAW-FITTING NOT A MYSTEKI0US PROCESS 

After all, saw-fitting is a work in which the little things 
count more than anything else, and the artistic work on 
the part of the saw is due more to the amount of atten- 
tion given to all the little points in gumming, filing, etc., 
than to any mysterious superiority in skill. It is superi- 
ority in a way, of course, but it is simply thorough exer- 
cise of care and intelligence in one's duty. There is 
nothing in the way of mystery in the art of saw-fitting 
nor about a saw, either. Every subject is comparatively 
easy of analysis and every fault has a cure, and most of 
them will disappear themselves if enough attention is 
given to gumming each tooth alike and in making every 
tooth cut exactly like the preceding one. Any man who 
has seen a reasonable amount of service in and around 
a stave or heading mill ; who has labored conscientiously 
and made good use of the "gray matter" he has been 
endowed with during such service; who can recognize 
well-manufactured stock when he sees it, and is possessed 
of a reasonable amount of skill in the handling of tools, 
and with intelligence enough to be entrusted with the care 
of saws, can turn out a good, satisfactory job of saw- 
filing if he will only use fair judgment and take the pains 
to follow up these details connected with his work. One 
of the most important points in connection with effective 



SAWS 109 

saw-fitting, no matter whether it is cylinder, pendulum, 
or any other kind of saw, is to keep the teeth at the same 
width, and the throats or gullets of the same uniform 
depth, so that the saw is in perfect running balance. The 
higher the speed of the saw, the more important this mat- 
ter of balance becomes, and it is always of more conse- 
quence than the average saw-filer gives it credit for being. 
Quite frequently a saw may run badly, shake and trem- 
ble, and jerk in the cut, doing its work unevenly, so that it 
leaves heavy ridges on the stock and makes a waste of 
timber, when the main trouble is lack of balance. The 
heavier the saw, the less likelihood there is of its growing 
shaky when it is only a little out of balance, but with the 
modern tendency to operate thin saws in order to lessen 
the waste in saw kerf, and the general disposition to run 
them at high speed, it becomes imperative to have them 
perfectly balanced. The trouble is the average saw-filer 
does not realize that a little difference in gumming or a 
little difference in the width of the teeth may affect the 
balance of the saw. When one gets down to the real art 
of saw-filing, it is not so much a matter of that peculiar 
style of tooth or of getting the teeth so that they will cut, 
but it occurs to us that the important thing, after all, is 
to get them to cut smoothly. This they will not do, of 
course, if the saw is out of balance ; but that is only one 
defect, and there are many others. Too much time is 
often wasted in the study of design of the tooth, and not 
enough given to close attention in making each tooth cut 
exactly like the preceding one, so that the work is smooth 
and regular. 

FILING-EOOM EQUIPMENT 

The ideas of mill men and saw-filers differ as to what 
machines and tools comprise an efficient filing-room outfit, 
and we consider that in order to make this work complete, 



110 



COOPERAGE 



it will be necessary to give a list of the several tools, 
machines, and appliances that are deemed in practice by 




Fig. 28. Automatic Saw Sharpener. 



the well informed to be necessary or desirable for the dif- 
ferent processes through which a saw must pass before 
it would be considered properly fitted for its particular 



SAWS 



111 



duty. This list as given comprises an outfit that will 
please the most critical, and provides a machine or tool 
for each and every service so far as conceived to date. 

FOE SHAEPENING OE GUMMING CIECULAES 

An automatic sharpener (Fig. 28) of suitable capacity 
and of such construction that the teeth are sharpened 
and kept of the same shape and size throughout, the gate 
to be so inclined that the emery wheel will drop to the 




Fig. 29. Hand Sharpener and Gummer. 



112 COOPERAGE 

throat of each tooth. In this manner it avoids burning or 
case-hardening the points of the teeth. Saws sharpened 
on an automatic sharpener of this kind will do more work 
with better results than saws sharpened by hand, with 
a big saving in files, as emery wheels cost but little com- 
pared with hand files. Another excellent machine for 
sharpening and gumming is shown in Fig. 29, where an 
automatic machine would be found too expensive or the 
small number of saws operated would not justify the pur- 
chase of an expensive automatic sharpener. This hand 
sharpener is adjustable, and when in the hands of a capa- 
ble saw-filer produces excellent results. Of course, more 
of the saw-filer 's time is required in operating a machine 
of this type. If an automatic sharpener were installed, 
he would find more time to perform other duties, which 
probably would be to a better advantage in the long run. 
This hand gummer also has an attachment whereby 
planer knives up to twenty-six inches in length may be 
ground. 

FOE SWAGING 

An up-to-date and adjustable hand swage of the eccen- 
tric type, one that is suitable for circular saws and wheu 
in operation does not pinch off the points of the saw teeth, 
and with the proper adjustment, so that any shaped tooth 
or any gauge saw desired can be swaged. (See Fig. 30.) 
The use of a machine swage on all large rip saws is indis- 
pensable, and a more general introduction of such a tool 
for swaging small factory saws would afford results far 
superior to hand swaging, or the mixed use of swage and 
spring- set, or the use of spring- set only. Mill men and 
all users of large or small rip saws are now realizing 
more than ever the great benefits derived by using on 
their saws a good swage, instead of the old method of 
using the spring-set or the upset. Swages are now 



SAWS 



113 



adapted to all sizes and gauges of circular saws, and to 
all ordinary shapes of teeth. Their work is rapid and 
is vastly superior to the upset or spring-set, as it makes 
a better corner, keeps the saw in round, and affords a 
sharp, keen cutting tooth that requires but little dress- 




Fig. 30. Adjustable Hand Swage. 

ing with emery wheel or file to bring it to a perfect point. 
A properly swaged saw of any kind will do more and 
better work and take less power to operate than one fitted 
with a spring-set, an upset, or with a combined swage 
and spring-set. 

Also an assortment of "upset swages" and a swage 
bar and hammer, which, though not recommended by 
modern mill men, may on especial occasions be supple- 
mented. 

FOE SIDE DKESSING 

A swage shaper or pressure dressing tool (Fig. 31), 
although as yet not so generally used in the cooperage 
trade, is now considered as a necessary and indispensa- 
ble tool by all practical men who are interested in secur- 
ing the best results in the operation of their circular saws. 



/ 



114 



COOPEEAGE 




Expert saw-filers are coming more and more to use the 
swage sliaper wholly for side-dressing purposes, and 

while a side file may be used by 
some with satisfactory results on 
saws of 12 to 16 gauge, the side 
file will not do for light-gauged 
saws. The tool is used similarly 
to an eccentric hand swage, rest- 
ing over point of tooth and oper- 
ated by the lever, to force the 
side-dressing dies together. This 
tool completes the work of the 
swage, and by its use the swaged 
tooth may be pressed into per- 
fect and uniform shape. A pair 
of dies press upon the sides of 
the swaged tooth, compressing the swaging to any de- 
sired set or spread, and tapering the tooth downward 
and backward from the point, making a perfect clear- 
ance, with face and point always the widest. This is 
an ideal way to side-dress a saw tooth, and saves the 
steel instead of filing it away, as with the side file. It is 
well worth while to aim for the best results in saw-fitting, 
and with the use of a swage and swage shaper you will 
have fewer bad cuts, smoother stock, fewer saws will 
come off, and less work in hammering and tensioning. 
Perfect swaging and side-dressing suggest a minimum 
saw kerf, smoother stock and a reduction in power. 



Fig. 31. Side Dresser or 
Swage Shaper. 



FOE HAMMERING AND ADJUSTING 

Saws periodically require tensioning. Even the smaller 
equalizer saws used in stave mills should at times re- 
ceive this attention in order to secure the best results. 
For this process is required a round-face and a cross- 
face hammer, weighing from 2 to 3% pounds, an iron 



SAWS 



115 



levelling block or try mandrel, 14x72x5 inches or 
smaller, surfaced both sides to permit of reversing, a 
steel-faced anvil, 14 x 24 
x 5 inches or smaller, two 
steel straightedges, one 
from 14 to 18 inches long, 
and one about 48 or 50, 
inches long, and a ten- 
sion gauge. These com- 
prise the necessary tools 
for hammering and ad- 
justing circular saws. 
(See Fi«\ 32.) 

Fig. 32. Tools for Hammering, etc. 
FOE SETTING 

Where spring-set is used, a circular saw set as shown 
in Fig. 33 is desirable. It should be adjustable and ar- 
ranged to take in any size saw, up to, say, 48 inches. 





Fig. 33. Circular Saw Set. 



This type of saw set is superior to the hand sets so much 
in use by the trade, and illustrated in Fig. 34. As this 
type of saw set insures an even amount of set in the 
teeth, which is of considerable importance, in that it 
does not weaken the teeth, and is desirable in order to 
secure a more uniform setting and better results. In 
conjunction with the above, a setting or striking hammer 
is necessary. One that does not weigh more than three- 



116 



COOPERAGE 



quarters to one pound is desirable. A saw gauge (Fig. 
35) is also necessary where the hand sets (Fig. 34) are 
used. There are innumerable types of these gauges in 





Fig. 35. Saw Gauge 



Fig. 34. Hand Saw Set. 

use, a great variety of them being made by saw-filers 
themselves. Some are constructed of wood, others of 
iron, but the one illustrated is considered by many as 

the best. Another useful 
tool in the setting of small 
saws, particularly the con- 
cave heading saws, is a 
type styled Monarch Pat- 
ent saw set, which is an 
extremely simple and in- 
expensive tool, and very 
effective in its work. There should also be included in 
the filing-room equipment a bench vise or saw clamp 
(Fig. 37) and an emery-wheel dresser. 

FOR GUMMING AND SHARPENING DRUM OR CYLINDER SAWS 

An extremely useful and very economical tool for use 
where there are one or more cylinder stave saws in opera- 
tion is shown in Fig. 38, which is very simple in con- 
struction, effective and extremely economical, when com- 
pared to labor saved and the cost of hand files. These 
gummers are adjustable, being so constructed that they 
can be raised or lowered, as the case may be, and the 



SAWS 



117 



emery wheel used at any desired angle while the gummer 
is in use, and are considered a necessary and indispens- 
able tool by all practical men of the trade. 




Fig. 36. Cylinder Saw Swage. 
FOE SWAGING DRUM OK CYLINDER STAVE SAWS 

The swaging of cylinder stave saws has until recent 
years been looked upon with more or less doubt and sus- 
picion, from the fact that the first tool 
placed upon the market for this purpose 
did not quite come up to its require- 
ments; but since other and improved 
types (Fig. 36) have appeared. The 
prejudice formerly existing has grad- 
ually disappeared. In justice to this tool 
or this method of sharpening saws, it 
must be said that cylinder saws can, and 
are, being swaged just as successfully 
as band or circular saws, and manufac- 
turers who aim toward economy will do 
well to include this tool in their filing- 
room equipment, as they are long past 
the experimental stage, and are being 
used successfully by the leading man- vise or Clamp. 




118 



COOPERAGE 




ufacturers. In swaging cylinder saws, the saw must be 
gummed by the emery wheel, gauged for spread of tooth, 
and side-dressed, the same as ordinary circular saws. In 
the process of swaging, the teeth are drawn out, refining 
the steel, which produces a better cutting 
edge, that is more easily kept sharp. 
And also by the use of the swage, instead 
of the old method of spring-set, a thinner 
gauge saw may be used, which means less 
saw kerf, and less kerf means less power, 
and that in its turn spells economy. There 
are other little advantages and economies 
besides these in using the swage, such, as 
smoother stock, less files, with less skill 
to a certain degree in sharpening. 

FOK KNIFE-SHARPENING 

An automatic knife grinder or sharp- 
ener (Fig. 39) is now con- 
sidered by all successful 
and modern mill operators 
as an indispensable tool in 
the proper equipment of the 
grinding room. These ma- 
chines have been so per- 
fected that they are no 
longer considered as an ex- 
periment, but as effective 
and economical grinders. The machine as shown is 
adapted to automatically grind the face of circle stave 
knives of any length. See detail sketch (Figs. 40, 41, 
42 and 43) showing the possible grinding of straight 
or circle knives, which are far superior to hand grind- 
ing or filing. A knife-balancing scales (Fig. 39%) 
should also be included among the grinding- room outfit. 




Fig. 38. Cylinder Saw Gummer 
or Sharpener. 



SAWS 



119 



Otherwise the proper balancing of the knives, so essen- 
tial to the successful operation of the different high- 




Fig. 39. Automatic Knife Sharpener, or Grinder. 

speed machines, is an impossibility. It is hardly pos- 
sible to realize what one ounce of misplaced weight 




Fig. 39^. Knife Balancing Scales. 

means in a knife. Suppose a pair of knives are of 
the same weight, knife No. 1 being correct in balance, 



120 



COOPERAGE 



both ends weighing the same. But the right end of 
knife No. 2 weighs one ounce more than the right end 
of knife No. 1. When revolving on a four-inch cylinder 
at 4,000 revolutions per minute, this ounce exerts a pull 



JSTnife Grinder Plate 




Flat J?eveZ£ng of 



Fig. 40. Detail Sketch op Straight Bevel Grinding of Knife. 



of about 58 pounds, and this is forced through its course 
4,000 times a minute, up and down, back and forward. 
Is it any wonder that these little defects in rapidly re- 
volving cylinders sometimes cause a whole building to feel 







Fig. 41. Detail Sketch of Concave Bevel Grinding of Knife. 

the motion? But this is not all. As both knives are of 
equal weight, the left end of knife No. 2 must weigh one 
ounce less than the same end of knife No. 1. Then, while 
revolving, one end of the cylinder is thrown up, the other 



SAWS 



121 



end is thrown down, producing a vibratory motion, and 
this practically doubles the defect. Thus the necessity 
of balancing the ends of the knife, as well as the knife 



Jtoife, Qrinfe? @Zxt 




Cup Emery Wheel. 



CeHCav* y Stave ■X^lfe 1 

Fig. 42. Detail Sketch of Concave Geinding of Stave Cutter Knife. 

itself, is very plainly seen. Knives out of balance not 
only produce poor quality of work, but subject the ma- 
chine upon which they travel to a tremendous strain, and 



Cujo Emery Wheel 
Stave JC?h£/°e— m * 




\5£a ve JCnlfe.^ 



jm o_ 



Fig. 43. Detail Sketch of Back Grinding of Stave Cutter Knife. 



cause the knife cylinder to rattle and the bearings to heat 
and wear rapidly, which necessitates extra labor in re- 
babbitting and unnecessary expense in the cost of babbitt 
metal, not mentioning the probable time lost by employ- 
ees, through the machine not being in proper repair. 



122 COOPERAGE 

FOR GENERAL USE 

All filing or grinding-room outfits should include among 
their list an emery-wheel grinder for general use, as 
these simple and inexpensive machines easily prove their 
economical value by their great saving in cost of files 
and labor, and can be generally used for almost any pur- 
pose where filing is necessary. 

SOME CAUSES OF POOR RESULTS IN SAWS 

1. Attempting to run too long without sharpening. 

2. Irregular and shallow gullets. 

3. Uneven setting and filing. 

4. Not enough set for proper clearance. 

5. Backs of teeth too high for clearance. 

6. Too much pitch or hook on teeth. 

7. Out of round, and consequently out of balance. 

8. Ill-fitting mandrel and pinholes. 

9. Collars not large enough in diameter. 

10. Weak and imperfect collars. 

11. Insufficient power to maintain regular speed. 

12. Too thin a saw for the class of work required. 

13. Not enough or too many teeth. 

14. A sprung mandrel or lost motion in mandrel boxes. 

15. Heating of journal next to saw. 

16. Carriage not properly aligned with saw. 

THE PROPER CARE OF SAWS 

One of the most general causes of trouble with saws 
of all kinds is the first item on the list, "Attempting to 
run too long without sharpening. ' ' The points of the saw 
teeth are the only parts of the saw that should come in 
contact with the timber. They should be kept sharp by 
the frequent use of the file or sharpener, and set by 
springing, swaging, or spreading when necessary suf- 
ficiently to clear the blade of the saw nicely to prevent 



SAWS 123 

friction. As the points of the teeth do all the work, they 
become dull and round, the sides of the points wearing 
away as well as the points themselves. If there is ' ' only" 
one corner off, and that corner leaves a ridge, it would 
have practically the same effect on the saw blade in pass- 
ing as if all the teeth had corners broken or worn off; 
and heating will develop unless the saw is set wide, which 
means unnecessary waste of power and of timber. On 
the other hand, if one corner is a little longer than the 
others, leaving a groove instead of a ridge in the face of 
the work, it does not interfere with the saw blade; but 
the surface of the stock cut, in order to be smooth when 
planed, will necessarily have to be cut down to whatever 
depth that groove extends below the face, and that means 
an unnecessary waste of just that much timber; so in 
either case it is imperfect fitting or negligence of one's 
duty that creates a monetary loss, which could have been 
prevented by the proper amount of care and attention. 
When a thin saw is used, with the object of saving timber 
by lessening the saw kerf, a long or short corner on a 
tooth makes it necessary to waste it and sometimes more 
at the planer. Therefore, it is more economical to 
sharpen the saw before it has become dull and round 
pointed. Great care should also be taken to maintain the 
proper shape of the points of the teeth. This can be 
readily accomplished when necessary by the frequent use 
of the machine or hand swage, or by the hand file, as the 
case may be. The gullets or sawdust chambers of the 
saw teeth should under no circumstances be filed square, 
and this rule should be applied to the small saws as well 
as the larger ones. They should in all cases be kept 
rounded out either by the use of the saw gummer or file. 
A saw tooth becomes dull on the side or under the point 
in proportion to the amount of feed. For instance, if 
the tooth takes one-sixteenth of an inch hold at each 



124 COOPEEAGE 

revolution, it will become dull to a depth of one-sixteenth 
of an inch below the point, or more or less as you increase 
or decrease the amount of feed. A few moments' filing 
two or three times a day will save much of the time and 
labor otherwise expended in running a dull saw, and 
effect a saving in the power consumed, increase the out- 
put, and materially improve the quality of the manufac- 
tured product. The square corners in the gullet or saw- 
dust chamber is another of the most frequent causes of 
poor results in saws, which should be guarded against, 
as they are very liable to cause cracks to appear, par- 
ticularly when the teeth are dull or during frosty weather. 

SAWS OUT OF ROUND 

The cutting of a circular or any other saw should be 
continuous, consequently the saw must be perfectly round 
to produce the best results. No saw can reasonably be 
expected to perform good work if it is out of round 
and consequently out of balance. When a saw has long 
and short teeth it naturally follows that the longest teeth 
will do the most work. This throws the heaviest strain 
on that part of the saw, instead of distributing it equally 
around the entire circumference. It is fully as impor- 
tant that saws be kept perfectly round as it is that 
they should be kept well swaged and sharpened. It is 
a comparatively easy matter to keep saws round with 
automatic machinery, but it requires considerably more 
skill to keep them round simply by the action of sharp- 
ening with a hand file. All filers should "joint" their 
saws frequently. In swage-set saws always "joint" after 
a fresh swaging by holding a piece of an old emery wheel 
against the teeth while it revolves slowly, thus reducing 
the teeth to a common length. Then file them again to 
a keen cutting edge. Keep the saw round, well set and 
nicely balanced. 



SAWS 125 

SHAEPENING AND GUMMING 

In sharpening or gumming saws with emery wheels, 
always use a good free-cutting wheel and never put so 
much pressure on it or crowd it so fast that the teeth 
are heated to such an extent that they become blued or 
case-hardened by the emery wheel. They are liable to 
break or crumble when in the cut or the next time they 
are swaged or set with the spring- set. Joint or true the 
emery wheel occasionally to retain the proper shape of 
its face, which should be kept round, and to remove the 
glaze. When gumming, it is always best to gum around 
the saw several times, instead of 'finishing each tooth 
at one operation, for by this method they are less liable 
to case-harden or blue, and a more uniform gullet or 
sawdust chamber is obtained. Keep the teeth of the 
same width, and the throats or gullets of the same uni- 
form depth, so that the saw will be in perfect running 
balance. After gumming it is advisable to file all around 
the saw, taking care to remove the fash or burr left on the 
edges and all the glazed or hard spots caused by the em- 
ery wheel. Gumming and sharpening a saw with an emery 
wheel, especially if you attempt to crowd the work, will 
have a tendency to cause the saw to "let down" or lose 
its tension much quicker than by the use of the hand 
file, as it heats and expands the rim of the saw, putting 
it in the shape generally termed by mill men "buckled," 
which makes it appear loose and limber. Many saws 
are condemned just from this cause and thrown aside 
as worn out, when by proper work in hammering they 
can be made as good as new again. 

FITTING AND SWAGING 

See that the saw slips up freely to fast collar and 
hangs straight and plumb when tightened up; that the 
saw mandrel is level and has no end play or lateral 



126 COOPERAGE 

motion, as the grain of the wood will push or draw the 
mandrel endwise no matter how well the saw is kept. 
Keep the saw sharp, round and swaged or set enough 
for clearance. An extreme amount of set or swaging, 
notwithstanding the injudicious waste of timber, in- 
creases the tensile strain and also has a tendency to 
make the saw tremble. The proper amount of set or 
swaging varies according to the class of timber being 
cut, hardwoods requiring the least amount of set, and 
soft. or fibrous woods requiring more. The amount of 
clearance required also depends on the gauge of the 
saw. In the usual gauges of large circular saws, say, 
8, 9 and 10 gauge, a clearance of %2 of an inch equally 
divided, is about "as little" clearance as should be 
run, except in hardwoods and frozen timber; then less 
may be used. In smaller saws, a clearance of "four" 
to "five gauges" is usually considered sufficient by most 
filers, and few make a greater distinction than "one" 
gauge of set, as between hardwoods and softwoods, the 
hardwoods requiring less. Keep the extreme point of 
the tooth the widest, and do all the filing or gumming 
on the under or front side of the tooth, always filing 
square across the teeth. Never file square corners in 
the gullets of the saw teeth of any kind, as this renders 
them liable to break. When there is occasion to swage 
or upset the teeth of the saw, the proper method is to 
file them all to a sharp point first, then swage afterward, 
as this will not only save time, but will save the saw, for 
the sharper the teeth, the more easily will they swage 
or upset. Always endeavor to keep the teeth in the 
same shape they were when new, filing them to a uniform 
depth and width and with the same amount of rake, for, 
should they lose any of their hook or rake or sawdust 
chamber, the saw will not only consume more power, but 
be harder to keep in order, as well as turn out inferior 



SAWS 127 

work, and consequently cause considerable waste of tim- 
ber. Keep the saws well balanced, round and the gullets 
or throats well gummed out. 

LEAD OF SAWS 

The amount of lead required for circular saws should 
be the least amount that is possible in order to keep the 
saw in the cut and prevent it from heating at the centre. 
If the lead into the cut is too great, the saw will heat on 
the rim; if the lead out of the cut is too much, the saw 
will heat at the centre. However, we will take this mat- 
ter up with the individual saws further on in this work. 

NUMBER AISTD STYLE OF TOOTH 

The style, shape and number of teeth in saws depend 
entirely upon its diameter, gauge, the purpose for which 
the saw is to be used, and the class of timber to be cut. 
The amount of hook, depth, size, and shape of the saw- 
dust chamber or gullet also play an important part in 
the working and success of the saw. A long tooth has 
the demerit of being weak and liable to spring. But 
it also has the merit of giving a greater clearance to the 
sawdust chamber. The throat space in front of each 
tooth must be large enough to contain the sawdust pro- 
duced by that tooth in each revolution. And the greater 
the feed, the larger or deeper it must be in order to fulfil 
its mission, or the more teeth required. If a saw is lack- 
ing in the proper amount of hook or the teeth are nearly 
straight on the face, they will scrape instead of cut, and 
will soon become dull. This produces no end of trouble 
in itself, for the teeth will cut hard, and it will require 
double the amount of power to force the saw through 
the cut. The severe strain on the teeth when in this dull 
condition causes them to tremble in the cut, producing 
a tremulous strain on the saw plate that calls for more 



128 COOPERAGE 

tension. And this severe strain on the teeth and at the 
bottom of the gullets, and especially so if the teeth are 
long, tends to crack the plate at this point and breaks 
out the teeth. Although the saw may have tension 
enough under ordinary conditions, the circumstances 
referred to above so strain and stretch the edge while 
the saw is at work that "more" tension is required to 
guard against the saw running snaky. Considering the 
elasticity of the steel, it is reasonable to concede that 
anything that tends to pull or strain the plate will stretch 
it, and the more it stretches, the more tension is required 
to enable it to stand up to its work. And it has been 
fully demonstrated that an extreme amount of tension 
tends to throw too heavy' a strain on the edge of the 
plate, and eventually it will cause the saw to crack at 
the gullets. A great many saw filers when their saws get 
into this condition, instead of adding a little more hook 
to the teeth and making a good, large, round gullet or 
sawdust chamber, give the saw "more tension" to over- 
come this trouble, which might have been remedied other- 
wise, and is a grave mistake, and will eventually lead to 
more and greater difficulties. 

CIRCULAB RIPSAWS 

The standard amount of hook or rake generally given 
large ripsaws, and which is usually considered "the 
limit" or "the least" amount that a saw should have to 
enable it to run successfully and stand up to its work has 
been found to conform to the following rule : The pitch 
line of tooth must be tangent to a circle whose diameter is 
one-half that of the saw. Although this pitch line of tooth 
is usually considered l ' standard, ' ' a saw will do equally as 
well with a little more than this. In cases where a spring- 
set is used on large ripsaws, it is always considered 
practical to have a larger number of teeth than if the 



SAWS 129 

saws were fitted with a full swage set. And, again, it 
should always be remembered that thin-gauge saws also 
require a larger number of teeth than saws of a heavier 
gauge, to do the same class of sawing, as this equalizes 
the strain on the rim, as well as prevents springing of 
the teeth. It has been also found advisable, whether rip- 
saws are fitted with spring or swage set always to file 
straight across in front and back of the teeth, as a bev- 
elled tooth has a tendency to split the fibres of the wood, 
instead of cutting it" off squarely across, and produces 
a lateral motion, which causes the teeth to chatter and 
vibrate in the cut. Many saws are cracked from this 
cause, although it has been frequently stated that cotton- 
wood and gum, especially the former, is the most difficult 
of woods to cut, on account of its fibrous and stringy 
nature, and that in order to saw this class of timber suc- 
cessfully the saw teeth should be set with a full spring- 
set, and the points "bevelled" and sharpened to almost 
a needle point. This wrinkle may be worth trying out. 
In order to determine the number of teeth required in 
a saw, it is first necessary to find out the amount of feed 
the saw is to run on, and if the feed is four inches to 
every revolution, it is considered standard to have one 
and one-half tooth for every inch of the diameter of the 
saw. In other words, if a saw is working on a 4-inch 
feed, and it is desired to operate a 50-inch saw, it will 
be necessary to have 75 teeth, and for every additional 
"inch of feed" carried add 10 teeth; that is, for a 50-inch 
saw with 5-inch feed 85 teeth, 6-inch feed 95 teeth, and 
so on, increasing the number of teeth in a slightly less 
proportion up to any desired amount of "feed." Where 
the feed is less than four inches the same rule may be ap- 
plied by reducing the number of teeth in proportion to the 
reduction in feed. The above rule applies only to the reg- 
ular gauges used, say, 10 to 16 gauge. Heavier gauge 



130 



COOPERAGE 



saws require less teeth.. This rule applies particularly 
to saws cutting soft and fibrous timber. For hardwood 
or frozen timber, where there is sufficient power to main- 
tain a uniform speed, the same rule may be applied. But 
in mills where the power is limited and of an uneven 
speed, it is not good policy to have more than one tooth 
to every inch of the diameter of the saw, as the fewer 
teeth there are in a saw, the less power it requires to 
drive it. 

THE STANDARD NUMBER OP TEETH IN CIRCULAR RIP SAWS 



DiAM. 


No. Teeth 


DiAM. 

Inch 


No. Teeth 


DiAM. 

Inch 


No. Teeth 


Headino Saws 


Inch 


Diam. 
Inch 


No. Teeth 


4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 


38 to 40 
38 to 40 
38 to 40 
38 to 40 
38 to 40 
36 to 38 
36 to 38 
36 to 38 
36 to 38 
36 to 38 
34 to 36 
34 to 36 
34 to 36 


24 
26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
46 
48 


34 to 36 
32 to 34 
32 to 34 
32 to 34 
32 to 34 
32 to 34 
34 to 38 
34 to 38 
36 to 40 
36 to 40 
36 to 40 
36 to 40 
48 to 60 


50 
53 
54 
56 
58 
60 
62 
64 
66 
68 
70 
72 


50 to 70 
52 to 80 
54 to 80 
56 to 90 
58 to 90 
60 to 100 
60 to 100 
60 to 100 
72 to 100 
80 to 100 
90 to 100 
90 to 100 


40 
42 
44 
46 
48 
50 
52 
54 


60 to 80 
60 to 80 
72 to 90 
72 to 90 
80 to 100 
80 to 100 
80 to 100 
84 to 110 



CUT-OFF OR CROSS-CUT SAWS 

Cut-off saws differ from ripsaws only in the shape 
of their teeth and the manner of filing or dressing them. 
The amount of hook necessary for such saws cutting soft 
or fibrous woods, and which is usually considered most 
satisfactory, is that the line of pitch on teeth should run 
through the centre of mandrel hole ; and for cutting hard- 
woods, the amount of hook or pitch is always a little less. 
The bevel on cross-cut saw teeth should never extend 
into the gullets or sawdust chamber, in fact, "only" the 
"points" of the teeth need bevelling. The remainder of 
the tooth and gullet should be dressed straight across. 
In heavy cutting the front of the tooth should be filed 



SAWS 



131 



with "very little" or no bevel. Many saw-filers have 
adopted the method of filing every seventh tooth square, 
front and back. This is considered good practice, as it 
removes the core or V from the kerf and prevents much 
of the lateral strain. These teeth should be just a trifle 
shorter than the ones that are bevelled. When sawing 
very hard or kiln-dried hardwood, it is always consid- 
ered advisable to use a narrower gullet and a stouter 
tooth than when cutting green or fresh timber. 



STANDARD NUMBER OF TEETH IN CROSS-CUT SAWS 



DiAM. 

Inch 


No. Teeth 


DiAM. 

Inch 


No. Teeth 


DiAM. 

Inch 


No. Teeth 


DiAM. 

Inch 


No. Teeth 


4 


100 to 120 


18 


80 to 90 


38 


80 to 100 


56 


90 to 120 


5 


100 to 120 


20 


80 to 90 


40 


80 to 100 


58 


90 to 120 


6 


100 to 120 


22 


72 to 80 


42 


80 to 100 


60 


90 to 120 


7 


100 to 120 


24 


72 to 80 


44 


80 to 100 


62 


100 to 140 


8 


100 to 120 


26 


72 to 80 * 


48 


80 to 100 


61 


100 to 140 


9 


90 to 110 


28 


72 to 80 


48 


80 to 100 


66 


100 to 140 


10 


90 to no 


30 


80 to 90 


50 


80 to 109 


68 


100 to 160 


12 


90 to 100 


32 


80 to 90 


52 


80 to 100 


70 


100 to 160 


11 


90 to 100 


34 


80 to 90 


54 


90 to 120 


72 


100 to 160 


16 


80 to 90 


36 


80 to 90 











COLLAKS FOE SAWS 

For a perfect-running saw, it is indispensable to have 
collars and stem of mandrel true and well fitting; any 
imperfection in these points is multiplied as many times 
as the saw is larger than the collar. They should be a 
perfect fit. For large saws, collars should be used that 
have a perfect bearing of three-quarters of an inch on 
the outer rim, the other part of the collar clear, as they 
grip and hold tighter than a solid flat collar. Examine 
the collars carefully, to see if they are true, and if not, 
have them made so; also be sure that stem of mandrel 
fits the hole nice and snug, and offers no obstruction to 
the saw slipping easily up to and against the fast collar. 
Test the saw with a straightedge, and if it is found true, 
place it on the mandrel, tighten up the collars, test it 



132 COOPERAGE 

again with the straightedge, and determine if the position 
of the blade has been altered, observing whether it shows 
true; if not, the fault is sure to lie in the collars, and 
should be remedied, otherwise it will likely ruin the saw. 

SPEED OF SAWS 

This is a very important point for consideration, as all 
large circular saws being hammered for certain speeds, 
a hundred revolutions more or less will always make 
a great difference in the running of the saw. Experience, 
sometimes well earned, has proven that a saw works 
better, both as to quality and quantity of its output, when 
run at a regular speed. It may be remarked in this 
connection that the prevailing practice for a number of 
years in America has been to speed saws higher than 
is really necessary or even advisable ; in short, we have 
had a spell of being speed-wild, trying to see what we 
can do in the way of high speed, but at present there 
is an undercurrent of feeling, and a tendency toward 
easing down a little in speed and taking more pains with 
the work. This tendency will probably grow stronger, too, 
as timber becomes more scarce and valuable, and we begin 
to realize more fully |hat it is not the quantity we turn 
out, but what we get out of the timber that goes into the 
mill that counts the most. And from practical experience 
it has been proven that it is far better, both from a stand- 
point of economy and efficiency, to run a saw ' ' too slow ' ' 
rather than "too fast." When you get a saw speeded 
too high, and especially if it is not set on a firm founda- 
tion, it becomes limber and touchy, will dodge about and 
manifest every kind of weakness; on the other hand, a 
saw running too slow, while having its objections, is 
never attended with serious faults that arise when one 
is running at too high a speed. And it is always wise 
to avoid both extremes. The speed of circular saws gen- 



SAWS 133 

erally is based on the rim travel per minute, the standard 
basis for figuring to-day, and advised by the leading saw 
manufacturers, being about 10,000 to 12,000 feet on the 
rim. A grea*t deal depends on circumstances, and theo- 
retically, according to this formula, in order to secure the 
proper rim travel or speed, the smaller the saw the more 
revolutions it would have to make. A 16-inch saw, 
for example, figured on this basis, would have to run 
nearly 2,500 revolutions per minute. Whether or not 
it should be run at this speed depends on circumstances. 
If it is a bench or equalizer saw, firmly held, it may be 
run at this speed and even higher, but if it is a pendu- 
lum or swing saw, the speed should not be quite so high, 
and about 1,800 to 2,000 revolutions would be nearer 
right. This matter of speed will be taken up more 
thoroughly with each individual saw further on in this 
volume. 

HAMMEKING AND TENSIONING 

The object to be attained in the hammering of a cir- 
cular saw is to tension or level it so that it will revolve 
in a perfect plane when in full motion. It also requires 
a reserve amount of tension to compensate for the re- 
sistance of the cut. This is not so apparent in saws ham- 
mered for medium or slow speed with light power as 
with high-speed saws. All saws if properly made are 
open toward the centre, this amount being more or less 
in proportion to the number of revolutions the saw is 
to run. It would be well for those having charge of the 
saws to examine them carefully when they arrive from 
the saw maker, and determine closely how much the 
saw drops away from the straightedge, and the same 
amount of tension kept in the saw at all times. The 
amount of gumming necessary to maintain the shape of 
the teeth, and the expansion of the rim by motion, to- 
gether with the resistance of the cut, have all worked 



134 



COOPERAGE 



together to stretch permanently the rim of the saw, caus- 
ing it to lose its tension. There is no known process by 
which this rim may be contracted, so the central portion 
of the saw must be stretched to compensate for this en- 
largement of the rim. A saw seldom loses its tension 
evenly. If it did so, the work of restoring it would 
be very much simplified. This uneven effect will result 
from a variety of causes. It may be from an uneven 
temper of the saw plate, but it more often results from 
a little unevenness of the tension in the saw. A saw that 

has lost its tension needs 
hammering with a round- 
faced hammer, as shown 
in Cut No. 1. However, 
before concluding that 
the saw requires ham- 
mering to adjust the ten- 
sion, see if there is not 
some other cause for the 
trouble, such as the saw 
being lined into the log 
too" much, which would 
cause it to draw into the 
log and heat on the rim, 
the guides not being properly adjusted, the gullets 
being too narrow for the feed, or the teeth not being 
swaged and dressed. Before beginning to hammer it, 
place the saw upon the anvil, and with the back edge 
resting upon a support the same height as the anvil, raise 
the front part of the saw with the hip and left hand, 
until the centre of the saw is clear of the anvil. Proceed 
to examine the saw carefully all around with the straight- 
edge, by applying it between the centre and the rim, at 
exactly right angles with the supports. Any other angle 
will show a bend of the plate instead of the condition of 




Cut No. 1. 



SAWS 



135 



the tension. And note the difference of the parts of the 
saw as they appear under the straightedge. If any part 
is found to drop away more than the rest of the saw 
from the centre of saw to the edge, mark this part as 
shown in Cut No. 2, and do not hammer as much, if any, 
at that place, until you have gone over the rest of the 
saw with the round-faced hammer, as this shows a degree 
of tension, and perhaps enough for that part of the saw 
when finished; for such places always show more tension 
when the balance of the saw is equalized to it. Another 
part may come up to the 
edge or show perfectly 
flat. This part of the 
saw is stiff and needs 
hammering for tension, 
still another part may 
show full, that is, the rim 
may drop away from the 
straightedge. This part 
of the saw is in a con- 
dition that is termed 
' ' fast, " and needs 
"more" hammering for 
tension than any other 
part. Examine the centre also. This may show flat or per- 
haps a little full, which indicates that this part of the saw 
is too stiff. Now proceed to lay off the saw for hammer- 
ing. Describe a number of circles three inches apart, mak- 
ing the outside one four inches from the rim of the saw 
and the inside one an inch or so from the collar line. Ex- 
amine with a straightedge and mark those parts which 
show "fast" or "stiff" by enclosing them with marks 
like half circles, of longer or shorter length, according 
to the conditions. The fast places in such a saw will 
generally need hammering on all the circles described, 




Cut No. 2. 



136 



COOPERAGE 



while those which are "stiff" may not extend so far out 
toward the rim. When all is in readiness for hammer- 
ing, use a round-faced hammer, weighing from 2 to 3% 
pounds, and do not strike too heavy, for it is better to go 
over the saw several times than to hammer too much at 
one time and put the saw in a worse shape than it was 
before you began. After going over one side, mark off 
the other side, and repeat the operation with as near as 
possible the same number and weight of blows as struck 
on the first side, spacing your blows about three inches 

apart on the circles. 
These circles are in- 
tended as a guide to uni- 
form work. After doing 
this much, erase all your 
marks and proceed to 
level by standing the saw 
upon the floor in a per- 
pendicular position, and 
examine both sides of the 
saw with a long straight- 
edge; and if the ham- 
mering has been equally 
done on both sides, the 
saw should be very nearly true. If, however, it shows 
full on one side and dishing on the other, mark these full 
places ; then place the saw on the anvil with the full side 
up and hammer lightly ; test again with the long straight- 
edge, and if it appears true, put it on the anvil and test 
it for tension, as before explained, to see if it has the 
proper tension. If not, repeat the operation with the 
round-faced hammer. After again testing, put the saw 
on the try mandrel and test with the short straightedge 
for running true. Mark the places as they run "off" or 
on," as shown in Cut No. 3. While turning the saw 




Cut No. 3. 



i i 



SAWS 



137 



slowly around and where the saw runs "off," lumps will 
be found most likely, as at 1, 1, 1, or what is termed 
"twist lumps," as at 2, 2, 2, or both may occur. These 
lumps must be taken out with a cross-faced hammer, the 
blows being struck so that they will be in line with the 
lump ; that is, the mark or impression the hammer leaves 
should run in the same direction that the lump runs, as 
shown by the straightedge. A twist cannot be taken out 
with a round-faced hammer, neither is a round-faced 
hammer liable to twist the saw. On the other hand, by 
using a cross-faced ham- 
mer, twist lumps can be 
very easily removed, if 
the blows are struck in 
line with the lumps. The 
saw may also be thrown 
out of true by lumps run- 
ning toward the centre, 
as at 3, as shown in Cut 
No. 3. In this case the 
saw will be "on" or 




"off" at points about 
opposite each other. In 
removing these twist 

lumps the hammering must be done carefully, otherwise 
the tension may be altered. Now put the saw on the arbor, 
and if for high speed it should sway gently from side to 
side in getting up to full speed, and will then run steadily 
and do its work properly ; but if it is snaky or rattles in 
the guides, it needs to be more open toward the centre. 
Where a saw is too open at the centre, it should be ham- 
mered in from the edge, as shown in Cut No. 4 ; and the 
distance to hammer in from the edge depends on where 
the loose parts are on the saw. If the centre is loose to the 
first line, or the one nearest to the centre, hammer from 



138 



COOPERAGE 



the rim to that line; but if it runs out to the next line, 
hammer only to that line. The degree of opening' or loose- 
ness necessary depends on the speed the saw is to run. 
The higher the speed, the more opening or tensioning 
is necessary, and vice versa. An experienced man will 
stand the saw on the floor, taking hold at the top edge, 
giving it a sudden shake, and if the centre vibrates and 
the rim stands stiff, he knows it to be open toward the 
centre. After deciding upon the necessary tension, see 
that the saw conforms exactly to it all around when fin- 
ished. Now go over the 
saw again carefully, as 
at the first operation, and 
mark all the full places, 
as in Cut No. 5, and ham- 
mer alike on both sides, 
with as nearly as possi- 
ble the same number and 
weight of blows as struck 
on the opposite side. If 
the work has been prop- 
erly done, the saw will 
now show quite an even 
tension and enough to 
cause the centre to drop through or vibrate either way, 
while the rim remains stiff when inclined a little from 
a perpendicular position. In finishing a saw, be very 
careful to remove all lumps or ridges near the rim, by 
laying two or more thicknesses of heavy paper on the 
anvil. Place the saw with the lump or ridge resting 
directly on the paper, and by giving a few well-directed, 
sharp blows, the lumps can be hammered down without 
expanding the metal, and thereby losing the tension 
already given, which would be the result if placed on 
the bare anvil. The more evenly and carefully this is 




Cut No. 5. 



SAWS 139 

done, the better the saw will run. In regard to the 
amount of tension or openings required for different size 
saws at different speeds, it is not possible to give a rule 
that will answer all conditions, as thin saws require more 
tension than heavier gauge saws, and the stronger the 
power or the higher the speed, the more tension is also 
required ; and in cutting hardwoods a saw requires more 
tension than for soft or more fibrous woods. Beginners 
in the art of saw hammering should begin with a small 
circular cut-off saw, one that can be very easily handled. 
Go through with the operation as instructed, and after 
succeeding in putting this in good shape by hammering 
so that it will run true and smooth, without chattering 
in the cut, you will have advanced well in the art of saw- 
hammering, and will be able to operate on larger saws 
without the risk of failure. 



SECTION V 



KNIVES 



KNIVES 



PRACTICAL DISCUSSION 

The same argument may be applied to knives as to 
saws, in that they will not grind or sharpen themselves, 
and they also require a certain amount of care and atten- 
tion in order that they may properly perform the work 
expected of them in an economical and efficient manner. 
Over ninety per cent, of the difficulty experienced with 
knives is directly caused by their abuse, and most of this 
abuse is confined to the grinding room. There are many 
ways in which a knife may be ruined. In fact, the better 
the quality of the knife, the easier and more liable it is 
to be spoiled in grinding. In cases where the temper is 
drawn in grinding, the evidence is nearly always removed 
to the next time the emery wheel or grindstone passes 
over the knife. If you will try the knife with a file, you 
will notice how soft it is, and- should you strike the edge 
lightly, it will turn over completely, while, no doubt, in 
another part it may file hard and break out easily at the 
slightest touch. 

DIFFERENT IDEAS ON TEMPER 

Some operators and mill men want their knives hard 
and of a good even temper, and do practically all of their 
sharpening on the grindstone or emery wheel, while 
others doing the same class of work want them soft and 
of a very mild temper, so that they can sharpen or dress 
them up with a file frequently, without removing them 
from the machine. Differences of opinion of this sort 
occur throughout the trade, and directly is one of the 
causes of occasional poor results of knives, inasmuch as 



144 COOPERAGE 

the knife-makers have about arrived at a sort of cosmo- 
politan temper in their knives, so to speak, in order to 
give good service under such varied conditions. In order 
to warrant securing a knife that will answer its purpose 
and give good and satisfactory results, it is very essential 
that the knife-maker should know for what purpose the 
knife is intended, what speed it is to run, and how it is 
to be sharpened. Whether by the use of a hand file, 
grindstone or emery wheel, too much is usually taken for 
granted by the user of the knife, and the knife-maker is 
commonly left to use his own judgment in the matter. 
Knives can be, and are, made to meet almost any re- 
quirement and under all sorts of conditions, and if prop- 
erly used and taken care of will invariably give profitable 
results. 

SPEED OF KNIVES 

As with saws, speed also has a varying effect upon 
knives, but, of course, not with such effective results; 
but speed should always be taken into consideration in 
order that they may produce the best results. A knife 
that will work successfully* on one machine running at a 
certain number of revolutions per minute would not per- 
form as satisfactory or stand up to its work as well if 
run at 100 or more revolutions per minute more or less. 

TEMPEK OF KNIVES 

Two things are very necessary to produce knives that 
will be satisfactory and perform good service: First, 
good steel must be used in their construction ; it must be 
of a proper temper or carbon, and should be specially 
made for the purpose. Second, and the most important 
element, is the proper temper, without which a knife is of 
no consequence. This one thing, the tempering of knives, 
should be the subject of more thought, experiment and 
careful attention than any other step in the process of 



KNIVES 145 

manufacture, from the crude ore to the finished product ■ 
and even then it retains the greatest degree of uncer- 
tainty of any. In the making of steel itself, scientific 
research and a long line of experiments have reduced the 
work to a satisfactory degree of positiveness. There 
are flaws, of course, now and then, as in all things but 
generally speaking we are in a position to-day to know 
pretty well just what we are getting in our steel, what 
chemical properties and what kind of structure. And the 
process of manufacture has been perfected enough that 
the product runs so nearly uniform as not to give serious 
trouble The same thing is true in all the mechanical 
work of making knives, and while it requires care and 
skilful manipulation at all times to turn out good, satis- 
factory knives, still, that is comparatively easv to obtain • 
but when we come to tempering, we strike the most dif- 
ficult step and process in all the work. This comes partly 
iixnn the fact that two pieces of metal exactly alike in 
chemical parts and physical structure may be given what 
appears to be the same treatment, and yet produce vary- 
ing results in tempering. This is only a part of the 
uncertainty, however, and another part comes from the 
different uses to which knives are put, and the difference 
in temper required under these various conditions. The 
problem of temper met with at times would be materially 
simplified if the knife-maker could know in each instance 
the exact service required of the knife; that is, if it were 
a planer knife, if he knew just the kind of wood it was 
to be used on, speed at which it would be run, and average 
depth of cut If users of knives would always bear this 
tact m rnmd when ordering their knives of the knife- 
makers, and then give them the proper attention in 
grinding or sharpening, they would find that the knives 
would always perform their proper amount of work with 
entire satisfaction, as the knife-makers have made this 



146 COOPERAGE 

matter of temper, through a long and ceaseless line of 
experiments and study, a work with a certain degree of 
positiveness and satisfaction. And they can invariably 
be relied upon to furnish an article that will produce the 
results expected under ordinary circumstances. It is 
worthy of remark in this connection, however, that users 
of knives are beginning to realize the general importance 
of this subject of tempering to a certain extent, and have 
more respect for the temper that has been put into their 
knives. In times gone by, and even among some careless 
workmen to-day, there has been many a carefully tem- 
pered knife practically spoiled by careless grinding. 

TEMPEKING SOLUTIONS 

1. To 6 quarts of soft water add 1 ounce of corrosive 
sublimate and two handfuls of common salt. When dis- 
solved, the mixture is ready for use. The first gives 
toughness, the latter hardness to the steel. Remember 
this is deadly poison. 

2. Soft water, 3 gallons; common salt, 2 quarts; sal- 
ammoniac and saltpetre, of each 2 ounces; ashes from 
white ash bark, 1 shovelful. Do not hammer too cold. 
To avoid flaws do not heat too high, which opens the 
pores of the steel. If heated carefully you will get hard- 
ness, toughness, and the finest quality. 

3. Common salt, 4 ounces ; saltpetre, r A ounce ; pulver- 
ized alum, 1 ounce ; 1 gallon soft water. Heat the articles 
to a cherry red and quench, but do not draw temper. 

4. Saltpetre and alum, each 2 ounces; sal-ammoniac, 
% ounce; common salt, VA ounces; 2 gallons soft water. 
Heat parts to be tempered to a cherry red and quench. 

TO TEMPEK KNIVES 

Take a vessel of proper width to receive the length of 
the knife, put some water in the bottom, and pour an 



KNIVES 147 

inch of oil on top. Heat the edge of your knife an even 
cherry red back as far as you wish to harden it, and 
holding it level, thrust the edge into the oil for a moment, 
until the color leaves; then slowly let it down into the 
water. The oil cools without cracking and the water pre- 
vents the heat in the body from drawing the edge. It 
is not necessary to harden all knives in this manner, as 
the oil alone will produce a sufficient hardness in ordinary 
cases if a large enough body of oil is used and the edge 
of the knife is immersed with a stirring motion. It can 
then be tempered to about 500 degrees (brown-yellow 
color) by the heat of the body of the knife and suddenly 
cooled in water at about 80 degrees. 

TABLE OF TEMPEKS TO WHICH TOOLS SHOULD BE DEAW1ST 

TOOL COLOR DEG. OF TEM. 

FAHR. 

Axes Dark purple 550 

All cutting tools for soft material. Very light yellow. .420 

Cold chisels for steel Light purple 530 

Cold chisels for wrought iron. . . .Light purple 530 

Cold chisels for cast iron Dark purple 550 

Key drifts Brown-yellow 500 

Wood chisels Spotted red-brown 510 

Hammer faces Very pale yellow . . 430 

Hand plane irons Brown-yellow 500 

Inserted saw teeth Straw yellow 460 

Screwdrivers Dark purple 550 

Springs Very dark blue .... 601 

Planer knives Brown-yellow 500 

Planer knives (to be filed) .Purple-blue 531 

TO TEMPEE OLD FILES 

Grind out the cuttings on one side of the file until a 
bright surface is obtained ; then moisten the surface with 
a little oil, and place the file on a piece of red-hot plate 
with the bright side upward. In about a minute the 



148 COOPERAGE 

bright surface will begin to turn yellow, and when the 
yellow has deepened to about the color of straw, plunge 
in cold water. 

EMERY WHEELS THEIR USE 

The emery wheel consists of grains of emery and a 
composition called the texture, which binds these grains 
together. 

In regard to the size of the grains the wheel is said 
to be coarse or fine in grade. In regard to its texture 
it is called hard or soft. 

To distinguish the grades, they are numbered from 
the dimension of the meshes through which the grains 
pass. 

Thus, grade 10 means that the distance between the 
wires of the mesh is 10 to the inch. 

Some of the substances used to hold the grains of 
emery together are hard rubber, shellac, ordinary glue 
and a mixture of linseed oil and litharge. 

The relative hardness of the texture is indicated by 
letters. Thus, A indicates a soft wheel; B, a harder 
wheel; M, medium wheel, and so on. 

The vitrified emery wheel is made with a cement which 
contracts slightly while cooling, leaving small pores or 
cells through which water introduced at the centre is 
thrown to the surface by centrifugal force. This flow 
of water operates to carry off the cuttiugs and the de- 
tached emery. 

The grade and texture of the wheel in certain kinds 
of work is fairly within the following limits : 

Wheels of coarse grain and hard texture are suitable 
for rough grinding in which' accuracy and finish are not 
required. 

Wheels having medium grains and hard texture are 
serviceable for sharpening or gumming saws, etc. 



KNIVES 149 

Wheels with medium grains and soft texture are suit- 
able for free cutting on broad surfaces of iron, steel or 
brass. 

Wheels with fine grain and soft texture are suitable 
for grinding fine tools, knives, etc., for which the duty 
is light, but the demand for accuracy imperative. 

In regard to finish, it is to be observed that the harder 
the substance to be ground, the coarser must be the grade 
of the wheel. Some emery grinders are fitted with a 
cast-iron box or tank to hold water, with a small pump to 
force the water up to the emery wheel. This is an ideal 
grinder where emery wheels are used, but great care 
should be exercised that oil or grease does not get into 
the tank, for, should this occur, and the oil or grease 
get onto the emery wheel, that wheel begins to glaze, 
heat and burn. After oil has once reached the emery 
wheel, it is next to impossible to keep the face from glaz- 
ing, and this is one of the many ways to ruin a knife. 
Frequent use of the emery-wheel dresser is the only rem- 
edy. There are many grades and qualities of emery 
wheels, and care should be exercised in selecting the 
proper grade for your use. For knife-grinding, an 
emery wheel should be free-cutting and fine of quality; 
and free-cutting means that they wear out much faster 
than the wheels that are hard, and will heat and glaze. 
If the emery wheel is too hard, it will either draw the 
temper or cause a number of fine cracks to appear in the 
face of the knife. Either the knife edge will turn over 
if the temper is drawn or break out if burned or if cracks 
appear. It is not always the case that the knife breaks 
out the first time it is used after grinding. Sometimes 
it is weeks or months before the trouble puts in an ap- 
pearance. It is always best, in the case of a good quality 
knife, or where good, clean work must be performed, to 
do the sharpening on a grindstone, in preference to the 



150 



COOPERAGE 



emery wheel, as better satisfaction is always given, and 
one is not so liable to heat or burn the knife. In all cases 
of knife-grinding on an emery wheel, the motion should 
be from the point or edge to the heel of the bevel on the 
knife, as in this way you are less liable to draw the 
temper. 

1 SPEED OF EMEEY WHEELS 

An emery wheel can be run too fast — So fast, in fact, 
that it will not cut, and is also a very dangerous opera- 
tion. The usual speed employed in ordinary work is 5,000 
feet on the surface, but in special cases it is sometimes de- 
sirable to run them at a lower or higher rate, according to 
requirements; but 5,000 feet is generally considered as 
giving the best results. And at this periphery rate the 
stress on the wheel is 75 pounds per square inch. The 
flanges for an emery wheel should be at least one-third 
the diameter of the wheel, and one-half the diameter of 
the wheel would be more desirable. Wheels should 
"never" be mounted unless the bore is an easy fit, and 
the flanges the proper size, so as to insure against un- 
necessary accidents. Below will be found a table of speeds 
for emery wheels, as recommended by the leading emery- 
wheel manufacturers as safe, and at which the best re- 
sults are obtained : 





Rev. per 


Rev. per 


Rev. per 




Rev. per 


Rev. per 


Rev. per 


DlAM. 


Minute 


Minute 


Minute 


Diam. 


Minute 


Minute 


Minute 




for 


for 


for 




FOR 


for 


for 


OF 


Surface 


Surface 


Surface 


OF 


Surface 


Surface 


Surface 


Wheel 


Speed of 


Speed of 


Speed of 


Wheel 


Speed of 


Speed of 


Speed of 




4,000 Feet 


5,000 Feet 


6,000 Feet 




4,000 Feet 


5,000 Feet 


0,000 Feet 


3 inches 


5093 


6366 


7639 


24 inches 


637 


796 


955 


4 


3820 


4775 


5730 


26 


586 


733 


879 


5 " 


3056 


3820 


4584 


28 


546 


683 


819 


6 


2546 


3183 


3820 


30 


509 


637 


764 


7 


2183 


2728 


3274 


32 


477 


596 


716 


8 


1910 


2387 


2865 


34 


449 


561 


674 


10 


1528 


1910 


2292 


36 


424 


531 


637 


12 


1273 


1592 


1910 


38 


402 


503 


603 


14 


1091 


1364 


1637 


40 " 


382 


478 


573 


16 


955 


1194 


1432 


12 


364 


455 


546 


18 " 


849 


1061 


1273 


44 " 


347 


434 


521 


20 


764 


955 


1146 


46 


332 


415 


498 


22 " 


694 


868 


1042 


48 " 


.318 


397 


477 



SECTION VI 



PRODUCTION OF SLACK 
COOPERAGE STOCK 



SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 



GENERAL REMARKS 

To the average citizen, a barrel is simply "a barrel," 
and he rarely thinks of the important part it plays in 
many industries of to-day. He never stops to think how 
seriously trade would be handicapped if the barrel sup- 
ply were suddenly to give out. But a moment's thought 
will serve to convince the most sceptical that the "homely 
barrel" is a more important factor in industry than it is 
sometimes credited with being. This is particularly true 
of the "slack barrel," as they were in use long before 
King Solomon's Temple was thought of, as "meal bar- 
rels" are mentioned in the good Book in several places, 
and no doubt were made about 910 years B. C. More 
than eighteen hundred years ago Pliny, an original in- 
vestigator, who lost his life trying to find out what made 
a volcano smoke, endeavored to trace to its origin an 
industry that was even then ancient and honorable. In 
time he located a race of people engaged in the industry 
at the foot of the Alps. — "And invented and pursued by 
a people regarded with awe, as a superior race, by the 
tribes who near them did dwell, but who could not tell 
when 'they' did begin." In the cooperage industry to- 
day there are two classes of barrels, commonly termed 
by their users ' ' tight barrels ' ' and ' ' slack barrels. ' ' This 
volume will deal exclusively with the latter class, which 
is designated "slack" from the fact that they are only 
used to hold commodities which are not in liquid form, 
such as sugar, flour, salt, cement, fruit, and vegetables. 
The woods used for its construction are chiefly elm, pine, 



154 COOPERAGE 

guin, beech, and basswood, named in the order of their 
importance. Some thirty or forty years ago the only 
wood used to any great extent in the manufacture of the 
slack barrel was oak, but the upward trend in value of 
that wood caused the trade to change first to elm, which 
was then known as the "patent elm stave," and then, in 
time, as elm became scarcer and more valuable, to 
beech, maple, sycamore, gum, and a number of other dif- 
ferent woods which are in use to-day. But on account 
of its great strength and toughness, elm has long been 
the principal and favorite wood used for staves and 
hoops, and it will continue to remain so until the supply 
is exhausted. The production of elm staves has decreased 
over fifty per cent in the last seven years. Elm is cut 
most largely in the Northern States, and particularly in 
Wisconsin, Indiana, and Michigan, and the exhaustion of 
the supply in those States has had a most serious effect 
upon the slack cooperage industry. It has been estimated 
that there are not half the staves manufactured in Mich- 
igan at the present writing that there were ten years ago. 
Saginaw, Mich., which formerly was considered the prin- 
cipal home of the industry, is now producing stock only 
in a small way. As a matter of fact, most of the slack 
cooperage stock made in Michigan at this time comes 
from the northern peninsula, instead of the southern 
peninsula, as was formerly the case. There has been a 
very great increase in the use of gum for staves, and 
more so for heading, within the last few years, in fact, 
since the year 1900, when this wood made its initial ap- 
pearance. Owing to its cheapness and abundant supply, 
it was experimented with and found to be quite satis- 
factory when care was taken in its seasoning. Bass- 
wood has always been the preferred wood for heading, 
because of its soft, even texture and light color, but it 
is now gradually being replaced by gum, which is no 



SLACK STOCK PBODUCTION 155 

doubt destined to be the most important wood of the 
future in the manufacture of the slack barrel. In fact, 
it is now ranked as second to elm, both as a stave and 
as a heading wood. For the manufacture of hoops it has 
not thus far proved adaptable, and will hardly answer 
for this purpose, on account of its peculiar properties, 
and from the fact that it splits easily and is quite brash. 

PRODUCTION OF SLACK STOCK 

The complete report of the United States Forest Ser- 
vice on the production of slack cooperage stock for the 
year 1908 gives detailed statistics on the output of 1,151 
establishments, as against 950 for the preceding year. 
This substantial increase in the number of establishments 
reporting for 1908, as compared with 1907, indicates not 
only a more thorough canvass, but also a greater degree 
of co-operation on the part of the manufacturers in the 
latter year, and largely as a result the statistics of the 
industry show general increases in quantity and value 
over previous years, despite the fact that industrial con- 
ditions obtaining were unfavorable. The data were ob- 
tained entirely by correspondence, and the better results 
secured at this canvass, as compared with those secured 
at any previous canvass, are due to the fact that a prac- 
tically complete list of manufacturers was compiled in 
advance, and also to the fact that manufacturers made 
much more satisfactory reports. Since statistics on this 
industry have only recently been compiled in a compre- 
hensive manner, it is impossible to draw conclusions as 
to the relative completeness of the returns. But as these 
are the only available statistics to be had on this impor- 
tant subject, we will necessarily have to be content with 
them as they are. Slack cooperage stock comprises the 
three materials essential to the manufacture of a slack 
barrel, namely, staves, heading, and hoops. 



156 COOPERAGE 

In aggregate value the reported production of these 
commodities in 1908 exceeded that of 1907 by $1,100,398, 
or very nearly 7 per cent., the increase being from $15,- 
800,253 to $16,900,651. The three branches of the slack 
cooperage industry are not co-ordinated, the manufac- 
ture of staves, heading, and hoops, respectively, consti- 
tuting to a large extent separate and independent indus- 
tries. Consequently, the totals of production of the three 
commodities in any one year seldom harmonize. The 
tendency through a series of years, however, is toward an 
equalization or balancing in production. Combining the 
totals of production for several years practically elim- 
inates the seeming inconsistencies and shows stave and 
hoop production for substantially the same number of 
barrels, with an excess of heading, a large part of which 
was probably consumed in repairing second-hand barrels. 
An interesting fact disclosed by the statistics of the last 
few years is the increasing number of establishments 
which turn out staves and heading as by-products in the 
manufacture of lumber. 

WOODS CHIEFLY USED FOR SLACK COOPERAGE 

Table I summarizes the production of staves, head- 
ing, and hoops, and shows the total manufactured from 
each species, with the average value per 1,000 for the 
years 1906, 1907 and 1908. The total reported produc- 
tion for the year 1908 was 1,557,644,000 staves, valued 
at $8,912,957, or $5.72 per 1,000 staves; 123,849,000 sets 
of heading, valued at $5,661,713, an average of a little 
more than 4% cents per set ; 336,484,000 hoops, valued at 
$2,325,981, or $6.91 per 1,000. Staves were manufactured 
in considerable quantities from nineteen different kinds 
of wood. The most important of these was red gum, 
which furnished about one-fifth of the total number, 
which was to be expected, as this species is rapidly super- 



SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 157 

seding elm and all others as a stave and heading wood. 
Next in importance come pine, elm, beech and maple, 
in the order as stated. These five species furnished prac- 
tically three-quarters of the total number manufactured. 
The total production of staves reported for 1908 ex- 
ceeded that reported for 1907 by 381,667,000, or 32.5 per 
cent. There was an increase of 17,775,000 sets of head- 
ing, or 16.8 per cent. Nineteen kinds of wood were in 
1908 used in sufficient quantities in the manufacture of 
staves and heading to be separately shown; tamarack, 
tupelo, willow, and yellow poplar having been included 
under "all other" woods in 1907. Fewer slack barrel 
staves of spruce, hemlock, basswood, and yellow poplar 
were manufactured in 1908 than in 1907, while there were 
increases in all other woods. For red gum the increase 
amounted to 50.4 per cent. ; for pine, 33.7 per cent. ; for 
elm, 21.7 per cent.; for beech, 32.7 per cent., and for 
maple, 28.2 per cent. Although relatively large increases 
occurred in many other kinds of wood, in no case did the 
quantity of staves manufactured from any of such woods 
form as much as 6 per cent, of the total quantity manu- 
factured in 1908. The five kinds of wood which had a 
production of more than 97,000,000 staves each in both 
1907 and 1908 ranked as follows in the two years: Red 
gum, pine, elm, beech, and maple. In 1908 these woods 
furnished 1,076,267,000 staves, or 69.1 per cent, of the 
total number produced in that year, and only about 100,- 
000,000 staves less than the total number manufactured 
during 1907. Red gum staves formed 20.4 per cent, of 
the total production in 1908; pine, 17.7 per cent.; elm, 
12.4 per cent. ; beech, 10.7 per cent. ; maple, 8 per cent. ; 
and chestnut, 5.1 per cent. 

In the manufacture of heading, only elm, beech, ash, 
spruce, oak, and sycamore showed decreases, as com- 
pared to 1907. No decrease, however, amounted to more 



158 



COOPEEAGE 



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SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 159 

than 4,187,000 sets, while the increase in pine alone was 
over 12,000,000 sets. As with staves, so in the manufac- 
ture of heading, five principal woods were used. Though 
the same woods are generally used for both purposes, in 
heading pine ranked first, with 31.8 per cent, of the total 
production; red gum second, with 13.9 per cent.; beech 
third, with 12.3 per cent.; maple fourth, with 10.8 per 
cent.; and basswood fifth, with 8.2 per cent. The pro- 
duction from these woods was 95,399,000 sets, or 77 per 
cent, of the total. In the production of hoops only ten 
kinds of wood were reported in sufficient quantities to 
warrant a separate presentation for 1908. Of these, red 
gum, ash, and beech, which latter wood was not separately 
tabulated in 1907, showed increases in 1908, as compared 
with 1907. In elm alone there was a decrease of $142,- 
840,000, or nearly 93 per cent, of the decrease in the total 
production of hoops for the year. This is accounted for 
by the fact that the elm hoop is being fast supplanted by 
wire and flat steel hoops. 

Table II shows the quantity, value, and average value 
per thousand of staves, hoops, and sets of heading pro- 
duced in 1908 from the different kinds of wood. The 
aggregate value of the reported production of staves, 
heading, and hoops in 1908 was $16,900,651, an increase 
of $1,100,398, or nearly 7 per cent., over the value of these 
products in 1907. In average value per thousand at poLit 
of production, staves decreased from $6.14 in 1907 to 
$5.72 in 1908, or a decrease of 42 cents. Among the 
individual species, the decreases, while general, were in 
the most instances small. 

Ash, for which the highest average value, $7.96, was 
reported in 1907, decreased to $6.52 in 1908, while the 
loss in elm — the next highest species in 1907 — was from 
$7.53 to $7.16 per thousand staves. Among other impor- 
tant woods the decreases were as follows: Eed gum, 



160 



COOPERAGE 



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SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 161 

from $5.88 to $5.45; pine, from $5.17 to $4.88; beech, 
from $6.31 to $6.27; maple, from $6.27 to $6.02; while 
for spruce the average value per thousand, $5.14, was 
the same in both years. 

Although the production of heading was greater in 
1908, the average value per set showed a decrease 
from .0477 in 1907 to .0457 in 1908, or .0200 per set. 
This is probably due to the fact that gum is rapidly 
superseding other species as a heading wood. The 
greatest loss in value occurred in cottonwood, the de- 
crease in average value per set of heading cut from 
this species amounting to .0110, while for pine, the prin- 
cipal species consumed in slack barrel heading manufac- 
ture, the decrease was .0072 per set. Practically the only 
woods which showed increases in value were oak, ash, 
beech, spruce, and sycamore ; but only a relatively small 
quantity of sycamore was manufactured. The highest 
average value, .0610, in 1908, was reported for ash, and 
the lowest average value, .0335, for pine. 

In both quantity and value the hoop production in 1908 
was Iqss than that reported for the preceding year. The 
principal wood used in the manufacture of hoops in 1908, 
as formerly, was elm, 97.1 per cent, of the total number 
being made from this species. Only four other kinds of 
wood were used to any considerable extent ; and these, in 
the order named, were red gum, ash, hickory, and birch. 
The highest average value per thousand hoops, $11.42, 
was reported for red gum, while the lowest, $3.75, was 
reported for maple. With respect to the average value 
per thousand hoops, both oak and maple showed increases 
in 1908, as compared with 1907, while elm showed a loss. 
In the case of the total production from all woods a de- 
crease of 26 cents occurred. This decrease in value was 
probably due in part to the increased use of wire and 
flat steel hoops. 



162 COOPERAGE 

In connection with the value of staves, heading, and 
hoops, it is interesting to note the various forms into 
which slack cooperage stock is manufactured, and the 
woods used for these forms. Flour and sugar barrels 
represent the highest grades manufactured, and after 
these come cement, lime, and salt barrels. Inferior 
grades are those barrels which are known as truck bar- 
rels, used for fruit and vegetables of many kinds and for 
crockery and glassware, and the barrels and kegs used 
in the hardware trade. Butter tubs, although not con- 
sidered of so high a grade as flour or sugar barrels, are 
hardly a low-grade product. 

In the East white ash and spruce are used exten- 
sively for butter- tub staves, and elm, maple, and bass- 
wood for bottoms and covers. Elm is used largely 
in the manufacture of the highest grade barrel, while 
pine is used largely for the inferior grades. Gum makes 
a clean, smooth stave, and its value is now being appre- 
ciated as a result of more careful methods of season- 
ing and manufacture. This is clearly shown by the 
increased production of staves from this wood. Con- 
siderable attention of late has been drawn to the sub- 
stitution of the sack for the slack barrel. It is be- 
lieved that for many of the lower grades of packages 
this will help to solve the problem of timber supply, 
though for certain products and classes of shipment a 
wooden barrel is much preferred. Crates, boxes, and 
baskets have in recent years been used to a large extent 
in the transportation of many of the fruits and vegetables 
which were formerly transported in barrels. 

SLACK BAKKEL STAVE PKODTJCTION 

Table III shows the production of staves in the differ- 
ent States by kinds of wood. Nearly two-thirds of the 
slack barrel staves manufactured are produced in the 



SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 



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166 COOPERAGE 

following States, named in the order of their importance 
from a standpoint of quantity: Arkansas, Pennsylvania, 
Michigan, Virginia, and Missouri. In the production of 
elm staves Michigan leads, followed by Ohio, Illinois, and 
Missouri. These four States produce the hulk of this 
stock. Maple staves are produced chiefly in Michigan 
and Pennsylvania. Nearly one-half of the total number 
of pine staves is produced in Virginia. This gives Vir- 
ginia her rank of fourth place in order of importance 
for number of staves. Missouri leads in the manufacture 
of gum staves, producing more than one-third of the total 
manufactured, followed by Arkansas and Illinois. The 
oak staves, practically all of which are some form of 
red oak, are manufactured chiefly in Virginia and Ten- 
nessee. Chestnut staves are manufactured almost en- 
tirely in Pennsylvania, which produced over two-thirds 
of the total manufactured. Beech and birch staves are 
also manufactured chiefly in Pennsylvania, as nearly one- 
half of the total number come from that State. Ash 
staves are produced mostly in Arkansas. Maine ranks 
first in spruce staves, having produced over 80 per cent, 
of the total manufactured. The quantity manufactured 
from the other species in that State is comparatively un- 
important. Delaware, Maryland, and Florida, as re- 
ported, manufacture pine staves exclusively. 

SLACK BARREL HEADING PRODUCTION 

Table IV shows that the total production of heading 
for 1908 was 123,849,000 sets, thirty-five States and Ter- 
ritories reporting; but Michigan and Arkansas were the 
centres of manufacture. Michigan led with 18.2 per cent, 
of the total number of sets of heading, and Arkansas 
came second, with 16.5 per cent. In 1907 Michigan and 
Pennsylvania were the leading States, but in 1908 their 
heading production had decreased 3.2 per cent, and 8.1 



SLACK STOCK PEODUCTION 167 

per cent., respectively, and the production in Arkansas 
had increased 241.1 per cent. In the production of red 
gum heading Missouri was the leading State, with 34.5 
per cent., followed by Arkansas, with 20.6 per cent., and 
Kentucky, with 18.8 per cent. Of the pine heading, 39.4 
per cent, was made in Arkansas, while Virginia and New 
Hampshire were close rivals for second place, with 16.5 
per cent, and 16.2 per cent., respectively, of the total pro- 
duction. Michigan reported 56.1 per cent, of the beech 
heading and 59.7 per cent, of the maple heading, while 
Pennsylvania ranked second in both of these kinds of 
wood, with 31.4 per cent, of the former and 15.1 per cent, 
of the latter. The only other wood of which more than 
10,000,000 sets were produced was basswood, and of the 
total production of this wood Wisconsin reported 53.5 
per cent, and Michigan 20.6 per cent. Over three-fourths 
of the entire heading production of Arkansas was pine. 
From Michigan a large number of woods were reported, 
the chief kinds being beech, maple, and basswood. In 
Pennsylvania the principal woods were beech, maple, and 
birch, while in Virginia pine was practically the only 
wood used, although several other kinds of wood were 
reported in small quantities. 

SLACK BAEKEL HOOP PKODUCTIOISr 

Table V shows the production of slack barrel hoops 
in 1908 by States and by kinds of wood. In distinct con- 
trast to slack stave and heading manufacture, the hoop 
production is to a large extent localized and the sources 
of material limited to a relatively small number of spe- 
cies. Of the total number reported for the United States 
(336,484,000) elm is credited with-^a production of 326,- 
894,000, or 97.1 per cent. Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana 
together reported 277,121,000, or 82.4 per cent. No wood 
besides elm was reported as forming more than 1 per 



168 



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SLACK STOCK PRODUCTION 169 

cent, of the total amount. Kentucky produced 60 per 
cent, of the hickory hoops, while New York led in the 
production of maple and chestnut hoops. Michigan pro- 
duced 46.7 per cent, of the ash hoops, and Maine 66.7 
per cent, of the total number of birch hoops. The elm 
hoop production was reported from 13 States, though 
83.8 per cent, of the production from this kind of wood 
was manufactured in three States — Ohio, Michigan, and 
Indiana. While the elm hoop maintains its prestige over 
other woods, iron in late years, to a considerable extent, 
has supplanted wood as hoop material for certain kinds 
of slack barrels. Elm as a wood is especially adapted 
to the manufacture of hoops, on account of its great 
toughness and flexibility, and for this reason it is doubt- 
ful whether it will ever be superseded by any other wood. 
Hickory would possibly be as acceptable if it grew in 
sufficient quantities and could be manufactured cheaply 
enough to compete with elm. There is no doubt but that 
in the future all slack barrels will be bound with either 
wire or flat steel hoops. 

EEVIEW OF FOEEST EEPOET 

From a study of this forest report, it will be seen that 
it shows red gum as ranking first in the quantity of staves 
manufactured, it having exceeded pine by nearly 42,000,- 
000, and elm by 125,000,000, while for the year previous, 
1907, it only exceeded pine by 5,000,000, and elm by 52,- 
000,000 staves, showing that red gum is rapidly coming 
into favor as a stave and heading wood. This was to be 
expected ; in fact, gum is destined to be the future wood 
used in the construction of the slack barrel. As a head- 
ing wood red gum ranked second in 1908, having moved 
up from fourth place in 1907, being exceeded by pine in 
1908 by over 22,000,000 sets. No doubt pine has also 
been growing in prominence in the slack cooperage in- 



170 COOPERAGE 

dustry, in fact, more than it has been given credit for, 
and must have been favored for other cooperage pur- 
poses besides salt and lime barrels. From this report 
it will be seen that more than one-half of these pine 
staves and 16.5 per cent, of the heading produced are 
manufactured in the State of Virginia, and is the cause 
of Virginia taking fourth place in the rank of States, 
according to the quantity of staves and heading produced, 
and it gives Virginia much more prominence in the slack 
cooperage trade than one might judge it had from a re- 
view of the markets. 

About one-half of the total production of staves as 
reported, were manufactured in the following four States, 
named in the order of the quantity produced: Arkansas, 
Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Virginia. Eed gum comes 
principally from Missouri and Arkansas, these two States 
having furnished 96.2 per cent, of the total production 
of staves. Elm, maple, and hemlock are mostly manu- 
factured in Michigan, while Pennsylvania ranks first in 
the production of beech, chestnut and birch staves, and 
Arkansas and Missouri are the main sources of supply 
of the ash staves. Maine ranks first in spruce, having 
furnished about 81.7 per cent, of the entire production. 
Michigan ranks first in the manufacture of heading, with 
Arkansas a close second, Pennsylvania third, and Vir- 
ginia fourth. These four States furnish practically one- 
half of the total heading production. Ohio ranks first as 
a producer of hoops, leading Michigan, which comes sec- 
ond, by nearly 28,000,000 hoops, Indiana being third, 
these three States being the principal hoop centres, hav- 
ing furnished 81.8 per cent, of the total production. It 
may be possible that these figures as to exact source of 
supply may be affected somewhat by the headquarters 
or. the selling points of certain hoop mills being located 
in the cities of the States named, and the reports emanat- 



SLACK STOCK PEODUCTION 171 

ing therefrom instead of direct from the different mills. 
The item of hoops admittedly does not take into due con- 
sideration large quantities of hand-shaved hoops of hick- 
ory and other woods which are made hy farmers and 
others who are not classed as manufacturers, and con- 
sequently do not furnish reports. The most remarkable 
point about this forest report, and the two unexpected 
conditions found therein. One is the fact that it has red 
gum as ranking second to elm as a hoop wood and as to 
quantity produced, and the other and most astonishing 
feature is the high price obtained for them, it ranking 
first in value, being $11.42 per thousand; while hickory, 
oak and elm, admittedly the better wood for hoops, rank 
second, third, and eighth, respectively. And also that it 
ranks pine as being fifth in value, while ash, elm and 
chestnut rank seventh, eighth, #nd ninth, respectively. 



SECTION VII 



HARVESTING 
RAW MATERIAL 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 

The harvesting of raw material for the production of 
slack cooperage stock is a matter which few cooperage 
concerns have succeeded in reducing to a scientific sys- 
tem. Of course, each manager will inaugurate details 
that are best suited to his locality and that he can best 
manage. But some general rules will apply to all. First, 
never allow the supply of timber to become exhausted 
when conditions will warrant the full operation of the 
factory. Second, do not overstock with raw material to 
such an extent that some of it will rot and become worth- 
less before it is worked up into the finished material. 
Third/do not purchase or transport to the mill such raw 
material that will not work up economically into that for 
which it is intended. It does not pay to allow the supply 
of raw material to become exhausted at the mill when 
there is a demand for the finished product, because there 
are always certain fixed expenses which must be met, 
such as taxes, insurance, salaries, and maintenance of 
plant, etc., whether the factory is producing its revenue 
or not. And the larger the concern, the heavier this fixed 
expense becomes, and this must all be earned when the 
mill is again in operation. Hence the necessity of keeping 
the machinery at work when there is a demand for the fin- 
ished product. If an overstock of raw material for any 
particular class of cooperage stock is purchased or logged 
and kept on hand too long, its value becomes impaired by 
rot, sun checks, etc., and often the wood becomes so hard 
through seasoning that it is more difficult and expensive 
to work, whereas, had it been worked promptly when it 
was green and fresh from the tree, it would have been 



176 COOPERAGE 

handled with greater profit and less waste, to say noth- 
ing about the convenience. 

The near approach of the time when it will be inex- 
pedient or impossible to manufacture slack staves from 
elm or slack barrel heading from basswood makes the 
question of producing them from other woods, such 
as beech, birch, maple, and gum, one of great impor- 
tance and interest. Cottonwood timber as a stave 
proposition is also a thing of the past, or nearly so; 
in fact, it is in about the same position as elm, and 
it is only a matter of a very short time when cotton- 
wood staves, as well as elm staves, will be produced in 
very small quantities. Some of the woods that produce 
excellent slack cooperage stock rot or decay rapidly un- 
less continuously kept immersed in the log pond. Differ- 
ent species differ in their resistance to decay ; ^f or in- 
stance, basswood is more durable than pine in this re- 
spect, and oak is better than beech, but in most cases the 
conditions of warmth and moisture in particular loca- 
tions have much to do with its durability. So much so, 
in fact, that predictions as to its durability become mere 
guesswork. Sapwood of any particular species is always 
more subject to decay than the heartwood, and doubly 
so where the latter is protected by resinous substances, 
such as in pine and cedar. In fact, all woods that con- 
tain thick sap, such as gum, sycamore, poplar, etc., are 
more liable to decay and rot than woods that have a 
thinner sap. It would be impossible to operate a stave 
or heading mill profitably and waste the sap portion of 
the timber. It has been found that several months' im- 
mersion in water improves the durability of sapwood to 
a considerable extent, but only impregnation with pre- 
servative salts seems to render it perfectly secure, and 
this operation is entirely out of the question. But wood 
kept immersed in water will remain practically the same 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 



177 




178 . COOPERAGE 

for centuries. It is only when living organisms attack 
it with their strong solvents and convertants that change 
and decay set in. 

This impresses one with the fact that too much atten- 
tion cannot be given to the care of the logs before they 
are sawn or worked up into stock in order to secure the 
maximum amount of timber with the least possible waste ; 
and it has been proven that in the ordinary run of mills, 
only about 50 to 60 per cent, of the contents of the log 
which goes into the mill finally emerges in the manufac- 
tured form of the finished product. And that in the case 
of heading, only about 25 per cent, of the actual volume 
of the log finally goes into the barrel head, leaving the 
enormous waste of 75 per cent, of the timber furnished 
the mill for stock manufacture to be eventually used as 
fuel, or dragged out into the yards to be used as filling 
for mudholes, or disposed of through other means from 
which the mill owner derives no revenue. The total per- 
centage of ultimate waste in manufacturing cooperage 
stock, even in the best-regulated plants, is enough to 
make a man's hair stand on end. This is the point in 
slack stock manufacture that will bear watching, provid- 
ing one wishes to study economy in mill operation. 

TIME OF FELLING 

Winter felling of trees has long been the general rule, 
since conditions continue to make it the best and mo.-A 
economical season for the logger. Moreover, sap con- 
tains fewer nitrogenous substances in winter than at 
any other season, and since fungi obtain much of their 
food from these substances, winter-cut timber, on ac- 
count of the low temperature of the season, is least liable 
to attack from this source. Wood cut in the fall of the 
year, when the sap is down, usually seasons more grad- 
ually, and at that time of the year the wood fibres shrink 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 



179 



more uniformly, and thus checking is less serious. 
Though in nearly all cases winter-cut wood is heavier 
than wood cut at any other season, yet, after six or eight 
months' seasoning, under ordinary climatic conditions, it 
so nearly approaches the weight of the lightest, that the 




Fig. 45. A Typical Hardwood Forest, with Undergrowth of Young 
Beech and Maple and Scattering Witch Hobble and Moosewood. 



180 



COOPERAGE 



difference is practically negligible. From the standpoint 
of seasoning, checking, and susceptibility to decay, spring 
and winter are the best seasons of the year for cutting. 
Other considerations, such as custom, availability of 
labor, etc., also make winter cutting preferable. But 
aside from these preferences, the season of the year or 




Fig. 46. Hauling Logs, a Familiar Picture to the Woodsman. 



the phase of the moon has no noticeable influence on its 
strength or durability; in short, seasoning does not in 
itself furnish a conclusive argument for cutting in any 
one season, as, if the wood is properly taken care of, by 
being promptly worked up and protected by proper 
methods in piling or by seasoning and kiln-drying, there 



** 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 



181 



would be no noticeable difference between summer and 
winter felled wood. 

Usually, summer-felled wood, on account of the preva- 
lent high temperatures, and at times to unnecessary ex- 
posure to the sun, the wood checks more rapidly if left 
for any length of time to the weather than winter-felled 
wood; and since season checks favor the entrance of both 




Fig. 47. Waste in Woods Operations. An unnecessarily high stump; 
also a sound log overlooked by the woodsman. 

moisture and fungus, which facilitate destruction, it is 
therefore considered more advisable to cut timber during 
the winter season. Trees normally contain the greatest 
amount of water during that period when the roots are 
active and the leaves are not yet out. This activity com- 
monly begins in January, February or March, the exact 



M" 



182 



COOPEEAGE 



time varying with the kind of timber and the local atmos- 
pheric conditions. And it has been found that green wood 
becomes lighter or contains less water in late spring or 
early summer, when transpiration through the foliage 
is most rapid. 

The amount of water at any season, however, is doubt- 
less much influenced by the amount of moisture in the 




Fig. 48. Good and Bad Cutting. The small trees have been left to seed 
up the opening made by the removal of the larger ones, but the stumps 
show unnecessary waste, in that they have been cut much higher than 
was necessary. 

soil. The conclusions, then, taken from the arguments as 
set forth, would be that "winter-cut" wood seasons more 
regularly than that cut at any other season of the year, 
but does not, for many months at least, reach as low a 
weight as wood cut in late spring or early summer which 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 



183 



is seasoned equally as long; that in timber of approx- 
imately the same age and growth, that cut in the winter 
season will have the greatest specific gravity, while that 
which is cut in autumn will have the least ; that from the 
standpoint of seasoning, spring and winter are the best 
times for cutting, and that if timber is carefully cut, 




Fig. 49. A Large Hemlock. 

checking during air seasoning is comparatively slight; 
but if the timber is split or shattered in felling, serious 
checking may result; that if wood which is cut in the 
summer season is protected or given the proper care and 
attention as mentioned, no noticeable difference exists. 
So that the practical consideration in favor of winter 
cutting is of determining importance. 



184 



COOPERAGE 



WOODS MANAGEMENT 

Where cooperage stock manufacturers do their own 
logging or cut their own raw material in the forests, it is 
highly imperative that the woods foreman should be a 
practical man, thoroughly conversant with the business 
and methods "at the mill," and have a knowledge as to 



/ 1 ' i5 ' J v <. 



fc. A'- 







w>.\« 



Fig. 50. A Lahge Red Gum. 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 



185 



the purpose for which a log or tree is best suited. He 
should also be well trained in the matter of economy in 
waste, as there is no doubt but that the greatest quantity 
and percentage of waste can be traced to this quarter 
(see Figs. 47 and 48), where a lack of careful supervision 




Fig. 51. A Large Cottonwood. One of the associates of red gum. 



186 



COOPERAGE 



and knowledge often lends to wilful destruction of val- 
uable timber. And in view of the rapid decrease in the 
supply, it would he well in nil forest operations to give 
more attention to this point. Logs or bolts are often cut 
at an inopportune time, or more rapidly than is necessary, 
and left lying in the woods (see Fig. 55) until they dis- 
color, check, decay, or become sour and useless for the 
purpose for which they are intended. 




Fig. 52. Second Growth Red Gum, Ash, Cottonwood, and Sycamore. 

The woodsman should also appreciate the fact that 
stave and bending mills can sometimes utilize a block 
16 or 18 inches long, as well as a log 16 feet in length. 
Still, thousands of such short blocks of apparently 
good quality, or tops, the lower ends of which would 
make excellent stave or heading bolts, are abandoned 
and left in the woods to rot and decay (see Fig. 47), 
whereas if these short blocks were sent to the mill' 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 



187 



staves or headings could possibly be made for the 
smaller sized packages and a saving created which 
would be astonishing to even the most economical of mill 
operators. Considering the waning supply of timber 
suitable for use in the slack cooperage industry, it would 




Fig. 53. A Cypress Slough in the Dry Season. 



188 



COOPERAGE 



be well for all operations in the woods to be planned with 
a view to encouraging reproduction. This object can 
best be accomplished by cutting conservatively at pres- 
ent, by using the utmost care to preserve and protect the 
younger trees, and by keeping fires off the land. Cutting 
without any regard to a diameter limit or with no inten- 




Fiq. 54. A Tupelo Gum Slougii. 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 



189 



tion of leaving seed trees is the most unsatisfactory 
method, as is shown by the present depleted condition of 
our forests. Had these principles been inaugurated in all 
woods operations twenty years ago, we would not now be 
seeking substitutes for the woods which are rapidly being 
exhausted. 

Owing to the number of different species in the 
forests, the diameter to which trees are now cut varies 




Fig. 55. Peeled Red Gum Logs Seasoning in the Woods. 



considerably. It hardly pays to take out logs less than 
8 inches in diameter at the small end, or 10 inches breast 
high. Trees under 10 inches breast high should not be 
taken, as the extra amount of labor incurred in handling 
these small logs, together with the difficulty experienced 
in producing good stock, does not warrant such wilful de- 
struction or demoralization of our source of supply. Some 
mills have been known to cut stock from trees 6 to 7 inches 
in diameter. Staves produced from such timber are not 



190 COOPERAGE 

fit for first-class packages, as being necessarily "bastard 
cut," they warp and shrink unevenly in drying, and will 
not stand the strain subjected to them in the modern 
methods of machine manufacture. Of course, they would 
answer for fruit or vegetable packages, when manufac- 
tured by hand, but should be sold as such, and not as an 
A No. 1 stave for other purposes. In cutting, all possible 
care should be exercised to save the younger trees, as 
they are the future forest supply, and waste should be 
avoided by cutting as low on the stump and utilizing as 
much of the tree as practicable. (See Figs. 47 and 48.) 
The forest is seldom clean enough to allow of much re- 
production, and anything that will tend to reduce the 
waste will therefore be of great benefit, both to the oper- 
ator and to the young seedlings that are springing up in 
the bed of the forest. Small trees should not be cut, 
present methods notwithstanding to the contrary, and in 
logging every effort should be put forth to save them. 
Whatever young growth is left on the ground after cut- 
ting will form the basis of the next crop of timber, and 
the seedlings which start at this time form the nucleus 
of future crops. The object in view should be to obtain 
the greatest yield from the land in two cuttings, perhaps 
twenty years apart. 

Working plans of such nature are particularly suc- 
cessful on hardwood bottom land, for the species there 
are nearly all of rapid growth, and protection from 
fire is fairly simple. Careful management in all cases 
is strongly advisable, as much of the land when cut 
over promises to produce worthless woods unless care 
is taken to leave seed trees and to favor the young- 
growth of desirable species. With proper forest man- 
agement, land is capable of yielding permanently high 
returns. 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 191 

THE DIFFICULTIES OF TRANSPORTING GUM 

In the handling of red and ttipelo gum, a large propor- 
tion of this wood growing in the South and along the 
Atlantic Coast is usually transported from the forests 
to the mills by means of the streams. The unusual weight 
of the green timber of this species is so great that it 
scarcely floats. Probably one-third of the logs, those with 
the largest amount of sapwood, sink. On the coast, where 
the percentage of sapwood is larger than in the Missis- 
sippi States, very few, if any, of the logs will float. To 
overcome this difficulty, various methods of driving out 
the sap of the logs before they have been thrown into the 
water have been tried. For small operations, the method 
usually employed is to fell the trees in the fall, peel them, 
and allow them to lie two or three months in the woods 
(Fig. 55) before they are floated or until the high water 
sets in, late in the winter, when the logs are floated along 
roads cut through the forest to the river, and thence 
rafted or floated down to the mills. In some cases gird- 
ling is resorted to, allowing them to die on the stump. 
The girdling is done in the summer season, usually start- 
ing about the first of July and continuing to within ninety 
days of high water. It has been found by experience 
however, that though these methods render the log float- 
able, they cause the sapwood to decay by exposing it to 
the air and weather, and thus destroy much of the market- 
able value of that part of the tree. In the early history 
of gum it was thought by many mill men that if the tree 
was girdled one year, allowed to die, and afterward cut, 
that the amount of red or heartwood would be increased. 
This was based on the theory that the darker color of the 
heartwood was caused by the death of the sapwood, and 
that the killing of the tree would tend to change the sap- 
wood into heartwood. This theory has been exploded 



192 COOPERAGE 

and abandoned, and in cutting gum, little girdling is now 
done for this purpose. Owing to the large supply of this 
timber in the Southern forests, and its cheapness as com- 
pared to other species, it will no doubt be looked upon 
with more favor as a cooperage wood in the years to 
come, and its price will doubtless remain where it is for 
a few years at least. After this, since the supply of gum 
will rapidly diminish, it will increase accordingly in 
value. 

SITE AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE MILL 

In the selection of the mill or factory site, good judg- 
ment and tact is essential, for if the plant is not properly 
situated, so as to receive the raw material and dispose of 
the finished product to the best possible advantage, the 
manufacturer will find it very perplexing, and be at a 
disadvantage and unable to compete with his competitors, 
who are fortunately more suitably located. Unless the 
mill is arranged in such a manner that the different 
stages of manufacture are carried out in progressive or- 
der, there will be a considerable amount of unremuner- 
ative labor. The ideal mill or factory is that in which 
there is no unnecessary handling of raw material, and in 
which everything when received at the works is stored so 
as to be readily available when needed, and thereafter 
so handled throughout the whole course of manufacture 
that it will not go through any backward movement, but 
forward from stage to stage, until ready for the market. 
A mill pond is essential to all well-equipped plants, where 
economy is sought, although it is not an absolute neces- 
sity, excepting where the supply of timber is cut during 
the winter for the entire year. Then a good sized pond 
is necessary, for it not only preserves the timber, but it 
is beneficial and economical in handling same from stor- 
age to mill. Next in importance is the question of grades, 



HARVESTING RAW MATERIAL 193 

elevation, balance and the law of gravitation. The first 
operation of the mill should be to elevate the raw ma- 
terial to a point where it would be a continual down grade 
until the finished product reached the car or loading 
point, ready to be billed out, with the least possible 
amount of labor in handling. This may seem to some 
to be trivial, but is of primary importance in all mills 
where economy is sought in the manufacture of cooperage 
stock, and economy coupled with brainy management is 
necessary, especially in the manufacture of cooperage 
stock to-day, as the future of the barrel as a popular 
package very largely depends upon the use of modern 
methods and the practice of such economies in order that 
its cost may be kept within the necessary limits, beyond 
which it is not safe to go. 

The machinery on the market to-day for the manu- 
facture of slack cooperage stock is worthy of comment, 
and the manufacturers of same have accomplished much. 
They have given us machines and appliances with which 
we can, with the proper care, produce first-class stock 
from raw material in an efficient and able manner. 
The rapidity, perfection, and complete adaptability 
of these machines for their especial purpose are ex- 
ceedingly creditable, and these modern machines and 
appliances should be installed wherever it is possible 
to use them, in order to lessen the expense, make the work 
easy, or more rapid in its production. 

THE UNLOADING SWITCH 

Whether a log pond is installed or not, the road bed 
of the unloading switch which brings the logs or raw 
material to the mill should be so constructed with the 
proper amount of slant toward the pond or receiving- 
platform that when the trip chains are loosened with a 
cant hook, which is easily accomplished, the logs will roll 



194 COOPERAGE 

of their own accord into the pond. This is another point 
in economy that should not be forgotten, as one man can 
easily and without much effort discharge a trainload of 
logs in a very short space of time. 

THE SLACK STOCK MILL 

Mills for the manufacture of slack stock are of several 
different type's. Some manufacture staves only, others 
heading only, some manufacture staves and heading 
while still others manufacture staves in connection with 
a hoop mill, generally making elm staves especially. And, 
again, some mills manufacture staves, heading and hoops, 
which is an ideal arrangement, as the logs can then be 
worked up into that class of stock for which they are 
best adapted. Ordinarily, staves when manufactured at 
a hoop mill do not run as large a per cent. No. 1 from 
the fact that the better grade of logs must necessarily be 
cut into hoops. If the staves are carefully graded, 
usually from 40 to 60 per cent, is considered favorable. 
Heading would be more suitable for manufacture in con- 
nection with a hoop mill than staves, from the fact that 
the bolts are shorter, and a poorer grade of timber can 
be utilized more advantageously than in staves or hoops. 



SECTION VIII 



SLACK STAVE 
MANUFACTURE 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 



GENEEAL EEMAEKS 

In the manufacture of slack barrel staves there are 
several distinct branches of the business, in any one of 
which success or failure means profits or loss to the 
industry. These divisions are, first, timber; second, fac- 
tory work; third, piling or air seasoning, and fourth, 
jointing and packing. As in the manufacture of any kind 
of cooperage stock good timber is essential to good 
staves, yet one can be careful, using good tact and 
judgment in purchasing good timber, and getting it to 
the mill in proper shape, and still manufacture very in- 
ferior stock if the processes above mentioned are care- 
lessly performed or neglected. It has been proven beyond 
a doubt that the extremely small and crooked timber is 
not profitable to work, and should be left standing in 
the forest until it has grown to the proper size, which 
should be at least ten inches breast high. 

The increased cost of labor in handling, transporting, 
etc., is so great that it is difficult to secure more than the 
bare cost out of such timber. Dead timber and logs that 
have been left in the woods or on the yard until they have 
become decayed or are partially so cause no little amount 
of difficulty and loss at the mill, and are the direct cause 
of a great many complaints of defective stock, and more 
especially so in the No. 2 grade. 

There has been considerable discussion as to how brash 
or how dead it is permissible for a stave to be and not be 
considered a dead cull. As to the No. 1 grade, these brash 
or dead timber staves should never be put into that class, 



198 COOPERAGE 

and a great many should not even be put into the No. 2 
grade ; in fact, it would be far better and more economical 
for all parties concerned if this class of timber was left in 
the woods. A stave that will break or bend with as little 
pressure as is required to make an ordinary produce 
barrel should certainly be throwu out. And it will be 
found preferable to leave such timber in the woods rather 
than culling them at the jointers after more or less labor 
and expense has been incurred in the handling, etc. 

THE WASTE PKOBLEM 

The total percentage of ultimate waste in manufac- 
turing cooperage stock, even in the best-regulated mills, 
is astonishing, and few operators are aware of their 
enormous loss from this least respected point in economy. 
So far, forest utilization has been of the most wasteful 
kind, and only a relatively small percentage of the actual 
wood content of our trees finally reaches the consumer in 
the form of staves, hoops, or heading. Studies made by 
the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture indi- 
cate that in the manufacture of staves and hoops only 
50 to 60 per cent, of the contents of the log which goes 
into the mill finally emerge in the manufactured form, 
and that with heading perhaps no more than 25 to 30 
per cent, of the actual volume of the log finally goes into 
the finished package. 

Much of this lack of utilization cannot very well be 
prevented, yet there are possibilities of much greater 
economy than is generally practised. For instance, 
upon careless inspection, logs are often assumed to 
be suitable for stave bolts, and are cut into lengths 
which are multiples of the length required, and are 
subsequently found to be fit only for heading, which 
requires much shorter lengths. This causes an unneces- 
sary amount of waste, which could have been prevented 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 199 

by a more careful determination at first of the purpose 
for which the log was best fitted to serve. And, again, logs 
are often bolted up into 32-inch lengths for the purpose 
of cutting into the regular 30-inch staves, and are later 
cut up into 28-inch staves or shorter, which means a 
waste in the first instance of two to three inches on every 
bolt, which could be averted by bolting out for each par- 
ticular length or size. This argument also stands for 
the different heading sizes. 

Waste also occurs sometimes because the logs lie 
in the woods or on the yard until they are so badly 
checked that it is necessary to cut off considerable 
of each end before the sound timber is reached, and 
they are sometimes checked so badly all through that 
over 50 per cent, of the log is worthless. Waste is 
increased, also, if the bolts are split instead of sawn, 
since in this case the first and last two or more staves 
cut from each bolt must be discarded, because the bolt 
is uneven; and, again, by splitting, the rift naturally 
follows the grain of the wood, and in cases of cross- 
grained timber, the bolts would have a wavy surface 
(Fig. 12) and be twisted or wider at one end than at the 
other, causing considerable waste. Hence, a given volume 
of timber will produce more staves when the bolts are 
sawn than if they were split or riven. 

Considerable waste can often be traced to faulty 
methods of manufacture and in the handling of stock. 
In order to utilize all the timber and give each log its 
most economical place, the different departments of the 
mill must work in harmony and for a common cause. A 
log that will not make a good hoop will very often do for 
staves, and one too poor or too small for staves will often 
turn out excellent heading. Where a mill manufactures 
only one class of stock, it would be advisable for them to 
have some side line, such as head liners, keg stock, tie 



200 COOPERAGE 

plugs, or furniture stock, whereby they could utilize their 
waste to advantage. 

The waste from careless stave jointing is another 
item of great importance. If the species of wood is 
hard to cut and contains many knots, the jointer will 
very often needlessly cull hundreds of staves, the de- 
fects of which could have been cut around and the 
timber saved. Improper methods in cutting and bolting 
for staves is another great cause of waste. ■ In some mills 
the log, instead of first being cut into blocks of the proper 
length and then quartered into stave bolts, is first sawn 
into cants or quartered along the whole length of the 
log and then divided or sawn into the requisite lengths 
for stave bolts. This method, as generally practised, 
does not shape the bolt to the proper slanting form. 
Moreover, the grain of the log generally does not run 
parallel to its axis all the way through, and for this 
reason the bolts prepared "in this manner will be more 
or less cross-grained and hence produce a poor grade of 
staves. Then, again, much waste is often due to careless 
management. The cooperage man must have green tim- 
ber, and yet hundreds of logs or blocks will often be 
allowed to lie on the yard or in the woods until they 
become too dry to be worked economically or are so badly 
checked that they are hardly fit for the purpose for which 
they were intended. Heading .blanks will very often be 
cut 21 inches long, when only 17%-inch and even 15%-inch 
heading will be circled out of them, and the heading 
matcher in his haste or carelessness will also often cause 
another waste of two inches or more by the wrong choice 
of pieces. The question of seasoning on the yard is 
another important factor in the waste problem. Stock 
is often piled in the open, the ricks or piles left uncov- 
ered, not properly elevated from the ground, or not 
sufficient air space left between the piles. Under these 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 201 

conditions the top layers will twist and warp and the 
bottom layers will rot, while very often the entire pile 
will become covered with a thick, greenish mould. 

An up-to-date slack cooperage plant should utilize 
every part of the bolt or log — bark, sawdust, and wood 
of every conceivable shape — and this can be accomplished 
with the proper energy and by an expenditure in the first 
cost which will soon be repaid to the mill owner. As to 
what can be made to utilize the waste, it depends some- 
what on location and surrounding conditions. Head- 
liners are a stock product that can be made to utilize some 
of the waste that accumulates in the form of cull hoops. 
However, in converting timber into hoops, especially 
direct from the log, there is quite a lot of stock that is 
not cut into hoops on account of knots and other defects, 
and this may be utilized for different products. 

One line of work, and a very important one in some 
localities, is to make small-dimension stock for chair fac- 
tories, including rungs, posts, seat frames, backs, and, in 
fact, all parts of various kinds of chairs and other furni- 
ture. It is an interesting line of work, too, when followed 
up right, the only drawback being the difficulty in secur- 
ing fair prices for the material. 

In some localities there is a chance to make crate stock 
of various kinds to advantage out of scrap material, and 
this wood, on account of its toughness, makes excellent 
crate stock. Trunk strips offer another opening, and 
really furnish an excellent line of work when you once 
get into it, because it is a little better quality of stock 
than ordinary crate strips, and in consequence brings 
better prices. Elm is the favored wood for trunk strips, 
and as this work includes numerous short lengths, they 
can frequently be made to advantage along with hoops, 
and made to assist materially in utilizing stock that would 
otherwise go to waste. 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 



203 



There are probably a number of other items that might 
be included here, such as tie plugs, wooden spools, etc., 
but with these to start on you should be able to keep 
building on to this list right along. It is interesting to 
note the variety of conditions and how they are over- 
come in various sections in the manufacture of slack 
stock. 




g 



v 



3~i 




W 1 f 







Fig. 57. Steam Kicker or Log Unloader. 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 



205 



r 



im^J™^ 




(VfiWt 



"^ ? *^^^^^ 



Fig. 59. Drop-feed Circular Cut-off Saw. 



206 



COOPERAGE 



The conditions vary as to climatic influences, such as 
in the North we must remember that the low temperature 
exerts influences that in the South are not even con- 




Fig. 60. Drop-feed Circular Cut-off Saw in Action. Right-hand view. 

jectured. The warm and unpleasant summer months 
control the character of labor very seriously in the South. 
The Northerner never dreams of this. The Easterner 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUBE 



207 



faces the problem of the very excessive prices of the raw 
material, that would paralyze the Middle- We sterner or 
Southerner. He therefore overcomes this by utilizing 




Fig. 61. Drop-feed Circular Cut-off Saw in Action. Left-hand view. 

every particle of the log in ways the Southerner would 
not think of. In the West or extreme West the manu- 
facturing of slack barrel staves, heads, and hoops has 
not received the attention that it has in other sections 



208 



COOPERAGE 



the tree or its product being manufactured into lumber 
for building purposes. 




Fig. 62. Over-head Style Steam Dog. 



THE BOLTING KOOM 

The bolting room is where the timber is sawn into the 
proper lengths for cutting into staves, heading or hoops. 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 209 

The logs should be brought into this department from 
the log pond on an inclined log trough by means of an 
endless chain log j acker or log haul-up (see Fig. 56), and 
landed on the sorting deck, where they can be properly 
inspected and put to the uses for which they are best 
adapted, the better grade of logs, ones with the straight- 
est grain and the least defects, such as knots, checks, etc., 
going into hoops or staves and the more inferior ones put 
aside for heading. Some mills may find use for a steam 
kicker or log unloader (see Fig. 57) for throwing logs 
out of the log trough in the mill. This machine can be 
used either singly, as shown in cut of complete deck, or 
double, as shown in this cut. The double machine con- 
sists of two rock shafts, to which are attached as many 
heavy cast arms as desired for length of log they are 
to handle. To these are attached the shover arms, which 
should be of forged steel hinged at the bottom end to 
the cast arms and working through cast guides located in 
the deck at sides of trough. These shafts and arms are 
in turn operated by means of two steam cylinders 
attached to the shafts by means of connecting rods and 
a heavy cast arm on rock shaft. The machine can be 
operated by means of a lever or by two foot treads. In 
most cases the foot treads are used, and are generally 
placed on one side of the log way. 

THE CUT-OFF SAW 

V 

The logs should then be taken to the cut-oif saw, to 
be sawn into the proper lengths for staves or heading. 
For this particular work some use what is termed a 
"drag saw" (see Fig. 58), others use a "drop circular 
saw" (see Figs. 59, 60 and 61), which show same in ac- 
tion), and in some mills both types are used, as in some 
instances where an extra large log is brought into the 



210 



COOPERAGE 



mill, the drag saw is brought into use, but for small- 
diameter logs, up to 30 inches in diameter, the drop-feed 
circular cut-off saw is the more efficient. For use in 
conjunction with the drag or drop-feed circular cut-off 
saw, for holding the logs firm and in position while being 
sawn, are what are termed "steam dogs." (See Figs. 62 
and (53.) The former type is what is termed the "over- 
head style of steam dog," and where timber does not run 
very large, this dog is very effective. 

The mechanisin will be seen by a glance at the cut. It < 
is a steam cylinder, usually 8 inches in diameter by 48 







Fig. 63. Floor-level Style Steam Dog. 

inches long, mounted directly over the rolls or log 
trough where stock is to be dogged. The end of the 
piston is provided with corrugated head. When stock 
is in position to be sawn, steam is admitted at top end 
of cylinder; the corrugated head strikes the log, the 
steam pressure is kept on until cut is made, when steam 
is admitted into the lower end of the cylinder and the 
piston is raised, permitting the log to be advanced for 
the next cut. Fig. 63 is what is termed the "floor-level 
type of steam dog," and will give a very fair idea of the 
most simple, compact and powerful steam dog ever de- 
signed for holding logs firmly in position while being 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 211 

sawn. It will dog instantly a 6-inch or a 5-foot log. It 
consists principally of two heavy jaws working in planed 
ways on top side of cylinder, and attached direct to the 
piston rods which extend from each end of cylinder. 

These pistons and rods are entirely separate, hut both 
are under absolute control, by means of the one valve 
which is operated either by lever or foot tread. One 
great point in favor of this type of machine is the small 
amount of space it occupies ; the steam cylinder is usually 
8 inches in diameter by 48 inches long. It can be read- 
ily put in a ground-floor mill and can be located in log 
trough, as shown in cut, with log chain passing through 
its centre, or can be placed at end or between geared 
rolls. When fast cutting of blocks is desired it is almost 
indispensable. 

THE DBAG SAW 

The drag saw (see Fig. 58) is what is termed a direct- 
acting steam drag saw, and is very simple, compact, 
and effective. This machine occupies very little space, 
and is virtually a self-contained steam engine on a small 
scale with a saw blade fastened to the piston rod. Its 
parts consist mainly of a base, a cylinder, the steam valve 
and connections, a cross-head which is attached directly 
to the piston, and to which saw blade is secured ; a saw 
guide and a device for raising and lowering saw and feed- 
ing it while it is in the cut, which consists mainly of 
ropes, pulleys, and a counterweight. 

On the capacity of this saw depends the output of 
the entire mill, and it is of the greatest importance that 
it should be given the best possible attention in order to 
insure its usefulness. It should be 8 feet long, 14 inches 
wide, 9 gauge thick and have 80 teeth, with a speed of 
150 strokes per minute. The teeth should be 1% inches 
long by % inch wide and have a lance point, with a slight 



212 COOPERAGE 

hook or slant toward the rear end of the saw. The tooth 
or cutting edge of saw should in all cases be perfectly 
straight. If it is allowed to become low or hollow in 
the centre, the saw blade will jump, which interferes 
with its cutting rapidly, and is one of the common causes 
of difficulty with this machine. A drag saw should be 
hammered as stiff as it is possible to make it, in order 
to insure the saw blade against buckling on the forward 
stroke and flopping from side to side on its return stroke ; 
the teeth should be jointed level to insure a straight cut 
and have about %-inch set for a 9-gauge saw, other gauges 
in like proportion. 

THE DKOP-FEED CIRCULAR CUT-OFF SAW 

The drop-feed circular cut-off saw (see Figs. 59, 60, 
and 61), in conjunction with the drag saw as shown in 
Fig. 58, being the most important saws in the mill, should 
be always kept in first-class condition, in order to insure 
a maximum output from the mill. These drop saws are 
journaled to a 2 1 %6-inch saw arbor. The frame and saw 
are counterbalanced, so that when steam is turned off 
the cylinder the saw will always be up out of the way. 
The feed is furnished by a 6-inch steam cylinder usually 
56 inches long, and so arranged as to be under perfect 
control of the operator at all times, who can vary it ac- 
cording to the timber to be cut, thus getting all possible 
capacity out of saw. These saws are usually driven di- 
rect from line or main shaft, the two pulleys at the top 
of frame acting as idlers and tighteners ; these machines 
when properly taken care of will cut through a 20-inch 
log in ten seconds, and for this purpose they cannot be 
surpassed. Capacity depends entirely upon the rapidity 
with which logs can be brought up to the saw and the 
bolts taken away. It is advisable in conjunction with 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 



213 



this saw to use an endless-chain conveyor for bringing 
logs to the saw. Saws for this machine should "be 66 




Fig. 64. Plan of Horizontal Bolting Saw. 



inches in diameter, inserted teeth, 7 gauge at rim, 6 gauge 
at mandrel hole, with 96 teeth, and should be maintained 



214 COOPERAGE 

at a speed of 600 revolutions per minute. When sharp- 
ening, the same cutting- angles should be preserved, and 
the gullets kept round. These inserted-tooth saws are 
sharpened and dressed the same as a solid-tooth saw, 
and the general directions in this work, under the head 
of "Saws," for the dressing of solid-tooth saws will 
apply. When changing teeth, first drive them into posi- 
tion by placing a swage on the cutting edge and striking 
a blow with a light hammer. Care should be exercised 
not to expand the rim of the saw by rivetting too tightly, 
for if this operation is not properly done the tension of 
the saw will be destroyed. It is only necessary to rivet 
enough to secure the tooth firmly. The surplus metal of 
the rivet may then be chipped off with a cold chisel in or- 
der that it may not interfere with the running of the saw. 

THE BOLTING SAW 

The blocks as they come from the drop or drag saw 
are then passed to the bolting saws, as shown in Fig. 64. 
These saws should be as large as the frame will allow, 
as a large-sized saw will enable the operator to split 
large-sized blocks through the centre without the neces- 
sity of chopping or splitting the bolt, which saves a great 
deal of timber and unnecessary labor. Experience has 
proven that a 60-inch saw gives the best results. This saw 
should be 8 gauge straight, 50 teeth, and running 800 
revolutions per minute. The teeth should have full 
34-inch set or swage, and pitch line should intersect a 
line at half the distance between centre and rim of saw; 
this gives a good hook to the teeth. The back of the teeth 
should be kept low to avoid friction, about one-fourth inch 
down, a half inch from the point of tooth, measuring from 
a straight line from point of one tooth to the point of 
the next one. The teeth should have ample throat to 
chamber the dust, but should not exceed l 1 /^ inches long. 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 215 

A safe rule is to make the length of the teeth half the 
distance between them, unless the teeth are more than 
three inches apart, when V/ 2 inches should be the length. 
If the teeth are too long, they will not permit the dust 
to pack in the throat or dust chamber, so that it can be 
carried through the cut, but will allow it to pour out at 
the sides and heat the rim of the saw. A straight-gauge 
saw is preferable for this reason: it allows the saw to 
split the log more easily, and without carrying unneces- 
sary set or swage, which is not only a waste of timber, 
but requires more power to drive the saw. Do not put 
as high tension in saw as would be necessary if sent to 
a mill, expecting it to be used six months without ham- 
mering, but put the tension in saw for speed of 800 revo- 
lutions, and keep it there at all times, examining it every 
time it comes off the mandrel. Keep the eye or mandrel 
hole stiff, the rim true and smooth, the saw as near per- 
fectly round as it is possible to get it, as the capacity 
of the saw depends very much on each tooth doing ex- 
actly the same amount of work. There should be dupli- 
cate saws, and they should be changed every five hours. 
With the saw, saw carriage and feed rig in proper con- 
dition, 40 cords of stave timber should be flitched frorn 
the round block every five hours; then change the saw 
and go at it again. 

STAVE AND HEADING BOLTS 

The preparation of stave and heading bolts, prior to 
their being cut or sawn into staves and heading pieces, 
is of much more importance than the average man at the 
mill generally allows. In the first instance it matters 
not how much attention is placed upon the operation of 
jointing or piling if the staves are not cut properly from 
the bolt, or the bolt is not properly prepared so as to 
allow of proper cutting. The staves will be, more or less, 



216 



COOPERAGE 



of inferior quality. The extra trimming in consequence 
of the bolts having been improperly prepared is ex- 
pensive, because it consumes time that might otherwise 
have been expended in cutting good staves if the bolts 
had been right, and the trimming also cuts away a 




Fig. 65. A Log before being Sawn into Bolts. 

large amount of valuable timber, which is unnecessarily 
wasted, or timber that would have been valuable if it had 
been handled right by the bolt being properly prepared. 
Fig. 65 shows the log as it comes from the tree or forest 
and prior to being cut into stave or heading bolts by the 
drag or drop saw. Fig. 66 shows the timber cut into the 
proper lengths for bolting. It has been proven that in 





Fig. 60. A Bolt before 
being Quartered. 



Fig. 67. Bolt Showing Method 
of Quartering. 



southern climates, where germs are active, or where stave 
and heading bolts are stored in enormous piles, causing 
them to heat and sweat, thus breeding germ life, it is 
always advisable to remove the bark after felling. In a 
cold climate this would be unnecessary. Fig. 67 shows the 
proper manner of sawing or splitting timber of large 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 



217 



diameter into stave bolts, and is termed by the trade as 
quartering, so as to allow of keeping with the grain 
when cutting into staves. These flitches should be sawn 
so that the staves when cut will average about four inches. 
This is one important point the operator at the bolter 
should always bear in mind, as otherwise the staves will 
run either too wide or too narrow. The usual run of 
flitches should be from 3 to 6 inches, with the majority of 
them nearer 4% inches, so that they will finish when 





Fig. 68. Properly Quartered 
Stave Bolt or Flitch. 



Fig. 69. Stave Bolt or Flitch 

Ready for the Stave Cutter 

or Cylinder Stave Saw. 



jointed to 4 inches, the proper average for slack barrel 
staves. In quartering bolts, it is a well-known fact that 
splitting them into flitches with a maul and wedge, in- 
stead of performing this work with a power bolter, is 
extremely wasteful, since in this case the rift naturally 
follows the grain of the wood, and in cases of cross- 
grained timber the bolts would have a wavy surface, be 
twisted and therefore wider at one end than at the other, 
necessitating several cuts before 
a full or complete stave could be 
produced. Hence, a given vol- 
ume of timber will produce more p IG 70. Stave Bolt Show- 

Staves when the bolts Or flitches ing Method of Cutting 

are sawn than if they were split 0R Sawing mTO Staves ' 
or riven. Fig. 68 shows stave bolt properly quartered 
and ready for the steam boxes, prior to being cut into 
staves. Fig. 69 shows stave bolt cut to uniform length 
on bolt equalizer and bark peeled off, ready for the stave 




218 COOPERAGE 

cutter after having been properly steamed. Fig. 71 shows 
heading bolt properly prepared from tree or log. Fig. 72 





Fig. 72. Heading Bolt 
Fig. 71. Heading Bolt Showing Method 

Properly Prepared. of Sawing. 

shows proper method of sawing pieces of heading from 
heading bolt. 

STEAM BOXES FOE STAVE BOLTS 

The operation of steaming the timber at the stave mill, 
prior to being cut into staves, is an important link in 
slack stave manufacture, and one that should be given 
more attention than the average mill man has applied 
to it. It is a well-known fact that one of the greatest 
faults of the average stave mill is either lack of steam 
capacity, or poorly constructed and inefficient steam 
boxes, or both. In general, well-steamed wood shears 
about one-third more easily than merely wet wood, and 
makes a brighter and much smoother stave. Timber that 
is not properly steamed or not steamed enough will pro- 
duce a stave that is rough, washboardy, of uneven thick- 
ness, and with the fibres of the wood badly shattered, 
by the knife forcing its way through the bolt, and is 
liable to appear mouldy and stained when taken from 
the pile; and, again, if the timber is steamed too much, 
the stock will be woolly and rough, giving the appearance 
of dead timber; this is especially so in the case of elm, 
cottonwood, soft or silver maple. It is being demon- 
strated now and then that some of the stave bolts are 
suffering from over-steaming. And when one gets the 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 219 

whole thing properly analyzed it will likely be found 
that the damage in over-steaming is more generally that 
of too intense steaming, that is, the use of too much 
heat or too high a pressure. Almost any one knows that 
wood can be steamed too much. Elm, cottonwood, etc., 
which are comparatively easy to soften with steam for 
cutting, can be steamed until they are difficult to cut 
smoothly, as they get woolly and the fibres of the wood 
hang across the knife, and the general effect is almost 
the same as if they were cut with a rough-edged knife. 
What is desired is to soften the timber to the highest 
degree of sponginess without loosening the fibres of the 
wood from each other to such an extent as to cause 
woolly or fuzzy cutting. There are really several trou- 
bles that develop from excessive steaming, but the most 
serious and permanent one is that of injury to the wood 
itself by loosening the bond of the fibres. Other inci- 
dental troubles are that it causes cracking of the bolts, 
which, in its turn, increases the size of the waste pile. 
The principal object to be obtained in steaming the 
wood before cutting, is to extract or force as much of 
the sap and nitrogenous substances out of the timber 
as possible, at the same time making the fibres of the 
wood soft and pliable so that it will shear or cut easily, 
and dry quickly after being cut, in order to lessen the 
possibilities of the staves moulding. When staves mould 
in the pile it is evident that either the timber was not 
properly steamed and the sap extracted, the steam not 
hot enough, so that the dampness will evaporate from the 
stave quickly, or else the stock is piled too closely to- 
gether, causing it to heat and sweat. To properly steam 
stave bolts of beech, birch, sycamore, hai*d maple, and 
gum, requires that the steam be more or less dry and 
of good pressure. By this we mean that exhaust steam 
from the engine alone will not produce satisfactory re- 



220 COOPERAGE 

suits, as it has not sufficient pressure to enter into the 
hard fibres of the wood. From this it is readily ap- 
parent that it is necessary in order to insure effective 
results to construct strong, tight steam-boxes and have 
at all times a sufficient supply of good steam. 

From careful observation at one of the largest stave 
mills in this country, where hardwoods are cut ex- 
clusively, it has been found that by the addition to the 
factory boilers of a standard feed water regulator, 
in order that the water in the boilers may be kept as 
near l 1 /* gauge as possible, with the steam pressure 
maintained at 100 pounds, that the quality of the steam 
is improved, that it drives the sap out of the timber 
quickly, and produces a brighter and smoother stave 
than if no attention was paid to feed or pressure in 
the boilers. This method also lessens the possibility 
of mould appearing on the stave. In the case of elm, 
cottonwood, etc., this method is reversed by increasing 
the water and lowering the pressure in the boilers, as if 
these woods are subjected to too severe steaming the 
stock will appear woolly and rough, as previously ex- 
plained, and is often mistaken for dead timber. 

The manufacture of gum timber into staves seems 
to have been a problem. Most of the difficulty experi- 
enced can be duly traced to improper steaming and joint- 
ing. If more attention were paid to details in steaming, 
no doubt these difficulties would gradually disappear. 
Gum properly manufactured makes an excellent stave, 
providing the fibres of the wood are not completely shat- 
tered in cutting, caused by insufficient or improper steam- 
ing. Where gum is cut entirely, there are quite a few 
adherents to the method of boiling them, after the man- 
ner of hoop plank, instead of steaming them. By boiling 
it is claimed they secure a much better stave, and experi- 
ments have proven that the wood shears easier by boil- 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUEE 221 

ing the bolts for about 7 hours than if they were 
steamed by the old process for 24 hours. This point is 
well worth considering, as no doubt it would be more 
economical to boil them, using exhaust steam, for 7 hours, 
than by steaming them for 24 hours. Of course, the 
problem of labor would have to be taken into considera- 
tion, as the expense of handling the bolts to and from 
the boiling vat would probably be greater. The whole 
problem of steaming resolves itself into this : Where tim- 
ber, such as el-m, cottonwood, soft or silver maple, etc., 
is to be cut into staves, the steaming process should be 
of a mild nature, using exhaust steam or steam of a very 
low pressure. There seems to be a difference of opinion 
in this case as to whether live or exhaust steam should be 
used. Some maintain that the live steam is the best, be- 
cause it is more forceful, while others show a preference 
for exhaust steam, and still others use a combination of 
both live and exhaust steam. A great deal depends upon 
the condition of the bolts to be steamed whether or not 
they need moisture in the heating, or simply need heat 
alone, and have sufficient moisture within themselves. 
Naturally, a bolt sawn from a freshly felled tree would 
have considerable moisture within itself, and would only 
require heat sufficient to soften the fibres of the wood, 
while one sawn from an old log or tree that had been 
lying in the woods or on the yard for some time would 
require considerably more moisture in the heating in 
order to soften the fibres of the wood properly. 

Late investigations on the subject of steaming have de- 
veloped the idea that too much heat and not sufficient 
moisture is made use of. Ordinarily, stave bolts are 
steamed approximately 24 hours with a combination of 
live and exhaust steam. It is now thought that longer time 
and less heat, or lower pressure, would give better results. 
On this theory, the exhaust steam alone should be better 



222 COOPERAGE 

than the live steam, because it is not quite so hot and 
has more moisture. But in the case of hardwoods, such 
as beech, birch, sycamore, hard maple, etc., it has been 
proven that the steam must be more or less dry, as stated 
before, in order to secure best results. 

There are different types of steam-boxes in use, and 
the tendency is, where new plants are constructed, to 
make them of concrete, which is no doubt the most sat- 
isfactory method. Although steam-boxes properly con- 
structed of timbers have in some instances been found 
to give entire satisfaction, the concrete box, which is 
somewhat more expensive, is absolutely tight, and prob- 
ably the cheapest in the long run, as the maintenance 
is a very small item. 

Where steam-boxes are constructed of wood, it is often 
necessary to rebuild them as often as once every two 
or three years, and in some cases it has been found 
necessary to rebuild them oftener than that. A fairly 
good construction of wooden box is made by using 
6 x 6-inch timbers, each additional timber being bolted 
down to the last one with %-inch bolts 12 inches long, 
spaced about 18 inches apart, and the joints prop- 
erly caulked when finished with oakum. The idea of 
using bolts only 12 inches long enables one to draw the 
timbers tighter together than if longer ones were used, 
and four or more timbers taken at one time. This method 
makes a much better and more satisfactory construction 
than if built up of two layers of tongue and grooved 
flooring lined with tar paper between, as the wood nat- 
urally shrinks and swells when steam is admitted; and 
eventually the inside layer will buckle or raise up, and 
the consequence is a leaky steam-box. 

In regard to the use of concrete for this purpose, there 
is a wide difference of opinion as to its ultimate value. 
Probably the chief source of difficulty and disappoint- 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUEE 223 

ment, when they occur from its use, is from cracks and 
from the work costing in excess of all previous calcula- 
tions. There may be other sources of disappointment, 
such as improper mixture, unwise designing, or ignorant 
handling, but where the boxes are properly designed, 
placed upon good, firm foundations, and the concrete 
properly mixed and well tamped in the moulds, and re- 
inforced with sufficient iron rods, no considerable diffi- 
culty should be experienced, and the steam-boxes should 
give perfect satisfaction, both as to cost of maintenance 
and quality of work produced. 

This problem of concrete cracking is one that even the 
experts do not seem able to explain away satisfactorily, or 
to positively guard against. At first cracks were almost 
universally attributed to faulty foundations. There is 
no doubt but that at least a part of them are due to this 
cause, but time and experiments have demonstrated that 
in monolithic concrete construction, where a wall is put 
up in a solid mass in large units, cracks will develop, 
regardless of foundations. It appears to be a matter of 
contraction probably, both in the setting of the cement 
and the changing temperature and moisture conditions 
of the weather after it is set. Expansion and contrac- 
tion make up the most serious problems of construction, 
and must be taken into consideration at all times. 

It appears to the writer that about the best solution of 
the crack problem in connection with the use of concrete 
would be to use it in the form of blocks or in smaller 
units, rather than what is termed monolithic work; but 
it would be a matter of experiment to determine whether 
this form of construction would be entirely satisfactory 
for use as a steam-box. It has been used in this form 
for dry-kiln construction, and found to give excellent re- 
sults, and no doubt could be successfully used for steam- 
ing purposes. 



224 COOPEEAGE 

In the matter of costs for concrete work for this pur- 
pose, and the probable reason that invariably such con- 
struction exceeds the costs calculated, contains food for 
thought. As an illustration, the usual mixture for concret- 
ing in monolithic form, is to take proportions about as fol- 
lows: One part good Portland cement, two parts sharp 
sand, and four parts crushed stone. Counting these parts 
as yards, one, two, and four yards make a total of seven 
yards; but instead of making seven yards of concrete, 
they really only make about four yards, or the amount of 
crushed stone put in, or, in other words, the amount of 
crushed stone represents the aggregate, and the sand and 
cement simply fill in the voids between the stone. This is 
probably one reason why concrete work invariably ex- 
ceeds the costs calculated upon. 

When commencing the foundation for concrete steam- 
boxes, the first important thing to consider is the 
nature of the ground. If the foundation is to rest on 
stone, the surface which is to receive it should be 
flat and level, or, if the stone is sloping, it should 
be cut into steps; otherwise the foundation may 
slide or part and cause cracks to appear. Damp clay 
or clay that is continually moist is slippery and makes 
a poor foundation, as it is treacherous and settles un- 
evenly and in all directions. Dry clay has a tendency 
to draw moisture from the air, and near the surface will 
expand and contract, depending on the condition of the 
weather. In many places it makes a poor foundation, but 
in some sections, where the land is kept well drained 
and the surface water runs away quickly, it makes a good 
base for a foundation, and may be trusted with from one 
to two tons per square foot, when the foundation goes 
from four to five feet in depth. The ideal base for a 
foundation for concrete work is "hard-pan." This, next 
to stone, is the nearest to being non-compressible. Next 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 225 

to hard-pan is gravel or sand, and if possible, this should 
be compacted with large quantities of water. Either of 
these will compress or settle some, but can be depended 
upon to sustain three to four tons per square foot of sur- 
face, this depending upon conditions. The bottom of the 
foundations should be below frost line, otherwise the frost, 
may distort them. Between four and five feet in depth 
should be the minimum. Where the soil is uneven and 
treacherous from being continually wet or swampy, piles 
should be resorted to. These should be spaced about 2% 
feet apart, centre to centre, and sawn off not higher than 
the line of permanent moisture, and the concrete base 
built over them, commencing 6 inches below the top of 
the piles. This running of the tops of the piles up into 
the concrete base holds them so they cannot spread, and 
is an important point where the foundation is laid in 
ground of this nature. If proper care is exercised in 
the foundation work of concrete steam-boxes, no diffi- 
culty of a serious nature will be experienced through 
cracks appearing in the main body of the work. As a 
rule, this, the most important point in concrete construc- 
tion, has been given the least attention. In mixing the 
concrete, the sand should be clean and sharp, and free 
from soil or dirt of any kind, as any loam mixed with it 
has a tendency to retard its setting, and the completed 
work will be somewhat inferior. Where creek sand and * 
gravel are used, a little more cement is necessary. It is 
calculated that sand has voids amounting to one-third of 
its bulk, so that if one part of cement be mixed with three 
parts of sand, the voids will be filled, and there will be 
no increase of volume in the sand; and that to use less 
cement than the above will leave voids in the sand, de- 
pending on the less amount used. A specially good brand 
of cement may carry four parts of sand, and make as 
strong concrete as another brand will when carrying three 



226 COOPERAGE 

parts, but it is well not to use more than three parts sand 
to one part cement, and even two to one would be safer. 
A good brand of Portland cement should be used in 
concrete work for steam-boxes, and where Eosendale 
cement is used, it would be well to use even less sand. 
From this it will be seen that the lower-priced cement is 
not always the cheapest. The stone used should be 
crushed from a good quality of granite, a strong lime- 
stone, or trap-rock, and broken so that it would pass 
through a 2-inch ring. Stone of a slaty character of any 
kind or limestone similar in form to slate rock does not 
make a good concrete. The mixture should be in the 
proportions of one part good Portland cement, two 
parts sharp sand, and four parts broken stone. The 
cement is improved by working and driving down solid 
in the moulds, and only sufficient water should be used, 
so that when the concrete is well rammed the water will 
just show on the surface. After the moulds have been 
removed, the walls should be faced with a mixture of one 
part cement to two parts sand, putting on a coat about 
one inch thick. To do this work it will take approximately 
one barrel of cement to every 14 square yards of surface. 
If the above information is followed closely, the steam- 
boxes when finished should be a source of pleasure to 
their owner, and eliminate all difficulties from this source. 

THE DUTCH OVEN OK BULLDOG FURNACE 

Next in importance to good, tight steam-boxes, ample 
steam capacity is of great consequence, and experience 
has proven that the so-called Dutch oven or bulldog fur- 
nace renders more and better satisfaction in stave mills 
than any other type, as it is not only a labor saver, 
but all kinds of culls, sawdust, bark, etc., can be thrown 
into it without much effort, making it easily the most 
economical furnace for this purpose. And it is remark- 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 



2^7 



able how much service can be secured from a modern- 
sized boiler with this attachment. 

A water heater also adds a great deal to the capacity 
of a boiler, and it is often cheaper to install one, in pref- 
erence to adding another unit, or purchasing a larger 
boiler. This Dutch oven is simply an extension built 
in front of the boiler (see Fig. 73), into which the fire 
grates are placed, instead of being put inside the boiler 
wall proper, and underneath the front end of the boiler. 
The details of construction differ, but the general idea 



i 











k~ 



•flv-u/. w ''■»i^^n>-»Kfvmmf 



Fig. 73. Dutch-oven or Bull-dog Furnace. 

is the same in all cases. These ovens are generally built 
about 10 feet long and should be fully as wide, and can 
very well be even wider than the boiler front itself. The 
oven illustrated shows the sawdust being conveyed direct 
to the furnace through the blowpipe, and can be dropped 
in equally as well with a chain conveyor. There should 
be an extra large opening on top to allow the fireman 
to shovel or scrape the larger pieces, blocks, etc., into 
the furnace from the floor level. The blowpipe or chain 
conveyor should be arranged in such a manner, having 
an extra leg or side extension with a switch or damper 



228 



COOPERAGE 



attached, so that when no fuel is wanted directly under 
the boiler, it can be thrown to one side. 

STAVE BOLT EQUALIZING MACHINE 

When the stave bolts leave the steara-boxes after hav- 
ing been properly steamed, they are taken directly to 
the bolt equalizer, as shown in Fig. 74. This machine 
should be located on the left-hand side of the stave cutter 



0% 




Fig. 74. Stave Bolt Equalized 

and about three feet from it, so that the operator can 
place the equalized bolt on a rack convenient for the man 
at the stave cutter. These bolts should be barked or the 
bark well removed before they are equalized, in order 
that the work will not interfere with the stave cutters. 
The important work of these equalizers is to equalize 
the ends of the bolts to the desired length and leave them 
smooth and square on the ends. The saws for this ma- 
chine should be 32 inches in diameter, 11 gauge straight, 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUBE 229 

with 64 teeth, and maintained at a speed of 1,800 revolu 
tions per minute; the pitch line of tooth should run 
through the eye of the saw. An equalizer rig, one that 
cuts both ends of the stick at once, is one class of sawing 
machine that you cannot give lead to clear the body of 
the saw ; consequently there is more or less trouble with 
the stock binding between the saws. Sometimes warmth 
from the journal boxes will cause enough expansion in 
the eye of the saws to make them incline to dish a little, 
and as your stock is passing between them on the inner 
side at all times, the tendency is naturally to dish out, 
increasing the length of the material a little and causing 
the stock to bind, which augments the heating and makes 
the trouble worse. Where saws are interchangeable, a 
little relief can be had by changing sides with the saws 
from time tq time ; where this is not practical or involves 
too much trouble, about the only immediate remedy is to 
give more set on the inside of the saw. Of course, by 
doing this the inside teeth simply tear down the wood, 
and leave a woolly end, giving the staves a ragged ap- 
pearance. Another and probably better method is to 
hammer them with more tension out near the rim, be- 
cause they cut hot timber, which has a tendency to heat 
the body of the saw, and make it expand more than if 
cutting cold timber. There is a point about filing equal- 
izer saws which is worth keeping in mind. Sometimes in 
cross-cutting stave bolts, you will notice instead of the 
end cutting out smoothly, the corner where the saw comes 
out shows splinters, or, as they are sometimes called, 
whiskers, which at times are rather annoying. These 
are frequently due to the fact that the average cross-cut 
saw used in equalizing wears most on the side next to 
the bolt, or inside, because that is where the heavy tim- 
ber is and the rigid cutting done; and in the process of 
filing from time to time, the inside teeth of the saw be- 



230 COOPERAGE 

come a little shorter than the outside teeth, and that is 
really what makes the splinters or whiskers. The out- 
side teeth cut through just a fraction ahead of the inside 
ones, and that leaves the fibres of the wood loose so that 
they are driven back on the finished end instead of cutting- 
clean. The way to get the clean cut on this inside or 
finished end, is to joint the saws so that they are a little 
shorter on the outside, say, %2 of an inch, or it won't 
hurt to make it %_$ of an inch ; then file, carefully to a 
point and note the results, and it will be found that the 
whiskers or splinters, instead of being on the bolt end, 
are on the end block that is cut off, where they will do no 
harm, and it really makes the saw run better and cut 
cleaner. In fitting equalizer saws this is a good point 
to keep in mind, and it will not merely have to be done 
once, but quite frequently, because the inside teeth are 
the ones which do the most work, and the outside ones 
will have to be kept jointed down from time to time as 
the saw wears. Where equalizer saws of an uneven gauge 
are used, they should be made straight on the inside, to 
allow the bolt to go forward toward the centre of the saw 
without bearing against it, which would cause them to 
flare out at the rim, making the bolt on the side cut 
through a trifle longer. This is one of the causes of bolts 
not being cut square, and produces staves of uneven 
length, a serious matter, but one that is neglected in the 
average factory. 

CRACKS IN EQUALIZER SAWS 

These cracks in equalizer and cross-cut saws of one 
kind and another present a very interesting study, and 
one that is very elusive when you try to run it down to 
an exact solution. It is a peculiar fact that cross-cut 
saws crack more frequently than ripsaws, and a big cir- 
cular mill saw very seldom cracks, while the little cross- 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 231 

cut saw has such a general habit of cracking that it may 
be called a sort of family characteristic. "It's the shape 
of the teeth and the sharp gullets," the saw man says, 
and advises you to use round-edge files or take other 
means of preventing them from getting square and sharp 
gullets. Still, it is a peculiar fact that after a crack or 
two comes in the rim of the cross-cut saw, you can file 
all the square and, sharp gullets you want to and it's not 
very likely to do any more cracking, not nearly as likely 
as it is to crack once, even though you take all manner of 
pains to prevent square gullets and sharp corners. The 
thing to do, of course, when a crack makes its appear- 
ance, is to drill a hole at the end of the crack, so that it 
may not go farther. The cause of cracks comes from the 
rim or outer edge of the saw being tight, requiring more 
tension to prevent the saw being wavy on the rim when 
it is speeded up, and gets the expanding strain of centrif- 
ugal force, and also the strain of cutting against the 
grain of the wood. In order to insure the saw standing 
up to its work, the saw man generally puts in a little more 
tension than is called for, so as to give a factor of safety 
to take care of the let-down that comes from service. As 
a consequence, the rim of the saw is like a tight band on 
a hub or anything of like nature, and a little wrench or 
jerk starts it cracking. There is really no universal rem- 
edy for it ; the matter might be helped a little if you have 
the tools and will do it carefully by hammering lightly 
around the base of the teeth, so as to expand the extreme 
outer rim a little, and leave the supporting tension of the 
saw just inside the rim, say, about a half inch, and leave 
the part of the saw that carries the teeth free from in- 
ternal strain, and to support only that caused by the cut. 

STAVE-CUTTHSTG MACHINE 

After the stave bolts have been properly barked and 
equalized, they are then taken to the stave- cutting ma- 



282 COOPERAGE 



_:D-i 



chine, a front view of which is shown in Fig. 75. For 
this purpose a machine is generally used having a knife 
36 inches long and 6% inches wide, with a face ground to 
a circle of 20 inches. The steel rib facings should be 
reversible and hardened at each end to prevent wear and 
discoloring the staves. In some cases brass facings are 
used and found to give good satisfaction. These ribs, 
which are the gauges that determine the thickness of the 
stave, should be kept in perfect circle with the tumbler. 
The tumbler shtmld be true on its face and the knife 




Fig. 75. Stave Cutter. 

ground as thin as is possible without injuring its strength, 
and should be set with a lead or draft of V-zi inch. The 
speed of the machine should be as fast as the operator 
can feed it and perform good work; generally 150 to 160 
strokes per minute is the average speed. In the opera- 
tion of this machine is seen the great advantage of prop- 
erly flitched timber, which, if sawn out in proper shape, 
makes the work of the cutter light, and shows increased 
output with less time and labor than if the timber ^vas 
split or riven; the cutter simply places the timber in the 
machine and it almost feeds itself. The trimming of the 
bolt to get it in shape to cut, and the tipping and turning 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 233 

that is necessary in cutting split timber is almost entirely 
avoided if the timber is sawn, and turns into staves a 
large per cent, of material that usually increases the fuel 
pile when cutting split timber. This is what makes it 
possible easily to cut from sawn bolts or flitches from 
50,000 to 60,000 staves in 10 hours. The cutter operating 
this machine must give proper attention at all times to 
the grain of the wood, and see that his bolt is turned and 
fed into the machine in such a manner that the knife in 
cutting through the flitches will be running as near quar- 
tering as practical, which means that the knife must 
start into the wood and cut from bark to heart or vice 
versa, thus crossing the grain properly and making a 
nice, clean, smooth stave, providing the timber has been 
first properly steamed. This is one of the most impor- 
tant points in connection with stave-cutting, and every 
cutter should endeavor to make this a study, as if the 
grain of the wood is not consulted the staves will be 
rough and of uneven thickness and will not retain their 
concave-convex shape while drying and seasoning, which 
is most important. When a stave which has been worked 
into a barrel, afterward loses its concave shape and be- 
comes convex toward the inside of the barrel, it has 
surely not been properly cut with the grain, and con- 
siderably lessens the strength of the package, as with 
the least jolt the package is liable to collapse. This item 
of loss is greatest in staves that change their shape or 
become flat or convex before they are made into the bar- 
rel, and are unfit for the poorest quality of culls. All 
woods do not show the grain plainly on the end of the 
stick, as in oak, but the stave cutter must know and con- 
sider the grain as if he could see it. When he is cutting 
staves from cottonwood, gum, and other woods that do 
not show the grain, he must use good judgment and fol- 
low the grain from the shape of the stick, as he can read- 



234 COOPERAGE 

ily distinguish the bark or sap side from the heart side. 
Some cutters maintain that these woods can be cut any 
way, either with or without the grain, but it has been 
proven by long experience that they do not hold their 
shape and do not cut smooth. A stave cutter that insists 
that the grain of cottonwood or gum need not be con- 
sulted makes many more defective staves, and is the main 
cause of variance in quality as between one stave mill 
and another. 

Any one of experience knows that there is a vast 
difference even in the quality of stock made in the 
same neighborhood, and it can all be traced to this one 
point, of properly cutting with the grain. Whether the 
wood used be cottonwood, elm, or beech, the grain should 
at all times be consulted. Not only is the variance in 
quality of staves confined to different plants, but often 
in the same factory and from the same rick of staves two 
distinct qualities of stock may be discovered, showing 
probably that one cutter observes the grain, while his 
fellow-workman does not. Most consumers have learned 
to understand that quality can be changed at any par- 
ticular plant, either intentionally or through carelessness, 
and on very short notice; also, that there is a great differ- 
ence in staves shipped from the same locality, and this 
can also be traced to that one important point of cutting 
with the grain. As to the proper thickness staves should 
be cut, the following measurements are considered stand- 
ard, when the* staves are dry and in condition for ship- 
ment, and should be adhered to as closely as possible : 

ELM STAVES 

20-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 28^-in. staves, 5 staves to 1% inches. 
21-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 30-inch staves, 5 staves to 1% inches. 
22-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 32-inch staves, 5 staves to 1% inches. 
24-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 33-inch staves, 5 staves to 1% inches. 
34-inch staves, 5 staves to 1% inches. 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 235 

GUM AND COTTONWOOD STAVES 

20-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 30-inch staves, 5 staves to 1 15 /iq i ns - 

21-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 32-inch staves, 5 staves to l 1 ^ i ns - 

22-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 33-inch staves, 5 staves to 1 15 /±q ins. 

23%-in. staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 34-inch staves, 5 staves to l 1 ^ i ns - 

24-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 36-inch staves, 5 staves to 2 inches. 

281^-in. staves, 5 staves to 1 15 /iq ins. 40-inch staves, 5 staves to 2y 1Q ins. 

OAK, BEECH AND MAPLE STAVES 

20-inch. staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 30-inch staves, 6 staves to 2% 6 ins.* 

21-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 32-inch staves, 6 staves to 2% inches. 

22-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 33-inch staves, 6 staves to 2]/ 8 inches. 

23%-in. staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 34-inch staves, 6 staves to 2% inches. 

24-inch staves, 6 staves to 2 inches. 36-inch staves, 6 staves to 2% 6 ins. 

28%-in. staves, 6 staves to 2% ins. 40-inch staves, 6 staves to 2%g ins. 

NUMBEK OF STAVES PEE CORD 

The number of staves generally produced from a cubic 
cord or a rank of stave bolts varies considerably, as a 
great deal depends upon the size of the logs from which 
the bolts were cut, and upon the kind and quality of the 
timber. For instance, 1,000 feet of logs 24 inches and 
over in diameter will make about 1% cords of stave bolts 
32 inches long, while 1,000 feet of logs averaging from 
12 to 18 inches in diameter will make nearly 2 cords of 
bolts. From this it will be readily seen that more staves 
are produced from logs of small diameter than from 
1,000 feet of logs measuring 24 inches and over. The 
general average appears to be about 2,400 staves 30 
inches in length from 1,000 feet of logs, scaled Doyle 
rule, where small and large logs are cut, as well as good 
and bad ones. Now, getting down to cord measurements, 
a pile of stave bolts 4 feet high, 12 feet long, and 32 inches 
wide equals 128 cubic feet or 1 cubic cord, and a good 
average production would be about 2,000 staves from 
cottonwood, gum, sycamore, etc., and about 1,900 staves 
from beech, maple, etc. Another measurement used con- 

*It has been the custom to cut 30-inch hardwood staves 6 to 21/ 16 inches 
instead of 2% inches, as this thickness is more preferable to all the large 
machine coopers. 



236 COOPERAGE 

siderably is a rank, which is figured thus: 4 feet high, 
8 feet long, and 32 inches wide; this equals 32 square 
feet or 85% cubic feet, and is considered a rank. From 
a rank of stave bolts the general average appears to be 
about as follows: For ash, 925 staves; for cottonwood, 
1,235 staves; for mixed timber, such as gum, sycamore, 
etc., 1,135 staves. 

THE CYLINDER STAVE SAW 

In the manufacture of slack staves from hemlock, tam- 
arack, jack pine, pitch pine, spruce, and woods of like 
nature, the cylinder or drum saw is generally used. (Fig. 



Fig. 76. Cylinder Stave Saw. 

76.) As a general proposition, the cutting of pine or the 
softer woods on veneer machines or slicers has developed 
some peculiar characteristics of the wood. According 
to the logical deductions from most of our well-known 
theories and practices in woodworking, pine, by its 
nature, cannot be successfully steamed and cut, and espe- 
cially is this true of the yellow or pitch pine of the South. 
Notwithstanding all this, however, we are confronted with 
the fact that lots of yellow pine is being cut to-day, and 
has been for the past few years, on veneer machines for 
light packages and crates, including as a prominent item 
orange boxes. In the softer pines of the North, in the 
cutting of lighter material, such as basket splints, etc., 
pine appears to work nicely also; still, those who have 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 237 

attempted to work pine and such woods into slack barrel 
staves and cut it with a knife say that it does not work 
successfully. It seems that between the steaming, and 
the straining and rupture of the grain while cutting, the 
structure and fibres of the wood are so shattered that 
after it dries a great many of the staves split apart, 
falling in some cases almost into splinters. The wood 
usually separates along the line between the hard and 
soft streaks, which is termed winter and summer-wood, 
and in appearance bears some resemblance to wood that 
has been beaten, somewhat after the manner of what is 
known as racking black ash strips to make butter-tub 
hoops. Some of the pine works better than others, but 
there is enough of this trouble present at all times to 
render the work generally unsatisfactory and make it 
more desirable to use cylinder stave saws to make slack 
barrel staves out of pine wood, whether large or small. 
You can, of course, cut them on a circular saw also, mak- 
ing straight-sawn staves of the narrow sort, such as is 
used for salt and lime barrels or similar packages, and 
which are frequently made from slabs and waste about 
the sawmill. In other words, this straight sawing process 
will do where pine staves are a mere incident in some 
other work; but where the making of staves from pine 
is a prominent factor, practically the only successful 
process of manufacture is the use of the cylinder or drum 
saw. Where gum is sawn on a cylinder stave saw, it has 
been found by experience that it takes a heavier corner 
on the teeth when sawing this wood than is required for 
cutting oak. This appears contrary to what one would 
naturally suppose. Upon careful examination of the two 
woods, the natural inference would be that the heavier 
corner would be required for the oak and that any kind 
of a light corner would answer for gum. But expert 
cylinder saw-filers contend differently, and state that 



238 COOPERAGE 

not only heavier corners, but more care is required in 
filing for gum than for oak. In filing the saws, care 
should be taken that the teeth are kept at the same width 
and the throats or gullets at the same depth, so that the 
saw is always in perfect running balance. The higher 
the speed of the saw the more important this matter of 
balance becomes, and it is always of more importance 
than the average filer gives it credit for being. First, see 
that the teeth are of even length all around, which can 
be accomplished by holding the side of an old, worn-out 
emery wheel lightly against point of teeth while saw is 
in motion ; then file the cutting edge square with the face 
or front of tooth, using an ordinary 8-inch mill saw file, 
to obtain the correct depth of tooth. After teeth have all 
been made of even length, chalk the surface of the saw 
sufficient to retain a pencil mark, on which scribe a line 
%e inch from poiut of tooth; then file each one carefully 
to this line, using a %-inch round file, in order that the 
throats or gullets are round at the bottom, as sharp, 
square corners will eventually cause breakage or cracks 
to appear in saw. As to the proper pitch required for 
cylinder saw teeth, different people have varying ideas 
on the matter, just as they do in shaping the teeth; but 
this rule has been found by experience to give entire 
satisfaction. Draw a line 6 inches lengthwise of saw — 
that is, from point of tooth toward pulley end — then 
measure carefully from this point 4 inches, keeping at 
right angles with first line or parallel with edge of saw ; 
then from that point draw a line to the point of saw tooth, 
and this will give the angle or pitch desired. It is only 
necessary to lay out one tooth in the manner described, 
after which a tin templet can be cut to correspond with 
same aud the balance of the teeth marked out and dressed 
accordingly. The set required for a cylinder saw should 
be the least amount possible in order to clear the saw, 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 



239 



and where spring-set is used should not extend more than 
one-third the depth of tooth. A uniform set can be ob- 
tained by using a metal templet and springing each tooth 
to same. Spring-set is no longer used and is not a desir- 
able method, as it weakens the tooth, and where knotty 
timber is sawn the teeth have a tendency to bend and 
eventually break off altogether. Swage-set is now consid- 
ered more satisfactory, and there are on the market two 
or more eccentric swages made especially for use on cylin- 
der saws, any one of which will give good results if prop- 
erly used. After the saw is swaged, a swage shaper should 
be used, as no side file will work on this type of saw. 
Give a little lead to the carriage by measuring from saw 
to inside edge of carriage while saw is in motion ; %6 inch 
will likely be enough. Use a tightener on belt and see 
that the speed is maintained at 1,800 revolutions per 
minute. 

SWING CUT-OFF SAW 

A swing cut-off saw of the type 
illustrated in Fig. 77 is a good, 
handy rig for a stave mill, and 
should always be considered as 
part of an outfit. There are uses 
innumerable for a machine of this 
class, the most important of 
which rs the equalizing to shorter 
lengths the cull staves which 
come from the stave cutters. The 
frame of the saw here shown con- 
sists of wrought-iron pipe se- 
curely held together and braced 
by cast-iron braces. The stand- 
ard distance from ceiling to cen- 
tre of saw is 8 feet, which length 
is suitable for an 11-foot ceiling, fig. 77. 




240 



COOPERAGE 



but they are made in longer or shorter lengths, as desired. 
Generally a saw 16 inches in diameter is used. The tight 
and loose pulleys are 8 inches diameter by 4%-inch face, 
and should travel 625 revolutions per minute. 

STAVE PILING AND AIR-SEASONING 

In a great majority of stave mills, after the staves are 
cut or sawn they are piled on the yard or under open 
sheds to season, called air-drying, while others put the 
staves direct from the knife into dry kilns. (This sub- 
ject will be found more fully presented in Section IX of 
this work.) In piling stock in the open or under sheds 
built for this purpose (see Fig. 78) considerable care 
and attention are necessary, in order to insure that the 




Fig. 78. View of Stave Piling Sheds and Log Pond. 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 241 

work be properly done. Some manufacturers are of the 
opinion that after staves are made, the important part 
has been accomplished and that they can be piled in any 
old place and in almost any shape or manner which sug- 
gests itself to the sometimes inexperienced piler. This 
is a very grave error, as by improper piling valuable 
timber is liable to be wasted, and this is not the stage in 
the manufacture where waste should occur. If there must 
be waste, let it occur in the woods or before so much time 
and labor have been expended upon it. It appears to be 
the most difficult problem for some manufacturers to 
realize and appreciate the value of expending a little 
more time and labor in raising their stave piles suf- 
ficientlv clear of the ground. 

On a visit to the yards of some mills where staves are 
piled for air-seasoning, one will find many cases of gross 
carelessness, where good, well-manufactured staves are 
piled so nearly flat on the ground that the grass and weeds 
growing up around not only hide the poorly laid founda- 
tion, but obstruct and retard the proper circulation of 
air through the several layers on the bottom of the pile. 
Eventually, when these staves are taken to the jointers, it 
will be found that the majority of them are stained or have 
turned black and sour from moisture and lack of proper 
air circulation incident to being kept close to the ground. 
Not infrequently some are found to be so rotten and 
worm-eaten as to be entirely worthless. A great deal 
can be done toward facilitating the drying of stock if 
the staves are piled on pieces of timber and kept away 
from the ground as far as possible, with the piles sepa- 
rated as far as the binders will reach, or at least 14 inches, 
to allow of good air circulation between the piles, and 
with a tunnel about 18 or 20 inches square running cross- 
wise throughout the centre of the piles, and at the bottom, 
directly opposite one another, so that where there is 



242 COOPERAGE 

a series of piles this opening makes a -continuous tunnel 
throughout them all. This opening or tunnel has a ten- 
dency to create air currents in and about the piles, and 
considerably facilitates drying or seasoning, and should 
not be omitted. 

If there is nothing near at hand suitable to pile upon, 
which will furnish a good foundation, why not get some- 
thing? There are generally a lot of saplings or some- 
thing of the kind in the stave woods that can be had 
and used to advantage in making a pile foundation. 
If something of this kind was secured, and the bark re- 
moved, one or two sides flattened if thought necessary, 
and then take some of those cull stave bolts, and, instead 
of laying them flat on the ground, dig a small hole and 
set them on end to form posts, on which the saplings could 
be placed in the shape of stringers, it would make a pile 
foundation that would be clear of the ground and would 
let the air currents circulate freely through and under the 
piles and prevent moisture coming up into the pile, and 
so insure staves in the bottom of the pile being as dry and 
bright as those up toward the top. 

It matters not just how these details are carried out, as 
one should naturally be governed in this by local condi- 
tions, but it looks as if there should be an awakening to 
the necessity of getting stave piles clear of the ground. 
What is needed is more active steps in the work of spend- 
ing a little more time and energy in piling staves to save 
trouble and loss of stock and profits on some of the stock, 
because of deterioration in the piles for lack of this atten- 
tion. We have often seen a good rick of staves spoiled by 
undue exposure, being practically neglected after they 
were on the yard. Open sheds are now considered by the 
progressive manufacturers as being the most economical 
and the only method by which staves should be piled for 
proper air-seasoning. The sheds should be built to 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 



243 



suit the location, but where practicable should be made 
about 20 feet wide and 100 to 150 feet long. (See Fig. 
78.) They are not very expensive, as no floor or sides 
are required; then the staves should be piled crosswise 
of this shed, making short and substantial piles, and when 




Fig. 79. Slack Stave Foot-power 
Jointer. 



jointing out, the oldest or the ones subjected to air-sea- 
soning the longest should always be taken first; in this 
way one is always shipping the best-seasoned stock, and 
the staves will not be liable to rot on account of remain- 
ing on the yard too long. Stave piles should be at least 
8 inches off the ground, and the grass and weeds kept 
cleaned away, as any sort of vegetation has a tendency 
to draw dampness; and in piling, the staves should be 
laid flat, with the least amount of lap possible, in order 



244 



COOPERAGE 



to allow of good circulation, and the piles kept straight 
and orderly. It is also considered good practice to leave 
a small opening on the bottom and in the centre of each 
pile, say, 18 or 20 inches square, so that each opening is 




Fig. 80. Slack Stave '"Power" Jointer. 

directly opposite the one in the next succeeding pile, 
making a continuous air duct through the entire lot, which 
facilitates drying considerably. 



STAVE JOINTING 



Next in order, and of much importance in slack stave 
manufacture, is the jointing; for this purpose the ma- 
chine illustrated in Fig. 79 is largely used, and where the 
jointer can be made stationary, the power jointer, as 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 245 

shown in Fig. 80, is generally used, as it is much easier 
to operate, and when in the hands of an experienced 
operator considerably more staves can be jointed than 
by the foot-power machine. In the process of jointing 
staves, too little attention is often given to this branch 
of manufacture. A jointing outfit is practically a little 
factory in itself, operating off in one corner of the yard, 
where you place full confidence in the ability of the 
jointer. His machine does the work poorly or well, de- 
pending upon its condition, and he often uses his own 
discretion in grading. With his helper he operates all 
day long, and if the superintendent of the plant does not 
visit him regularly every two or three hours one very 
important part of the manufacture of good staves is 
being neglected. Unless the jointer is a reliable and 
thoroughly experienced man, he should be watched con- 
stantly and coached properly in the work and the grad- 
ing, as it lies in his power to make a poor grade of stock 
out of well-cut staves and good timber. The superin- 
tendent, foreman, or a competent jointer should inspect 
each and every machine's work at least once an hour, to 
determine whether the men operating these machines are 
jointing their staves properly, and at the same time are 
not wasting valuable timber by cutting off an unnecessar- 
ily heavy listing. These listings should be the least 
amount possible, in order to insure a perfect joint, and 
where an operator is using an extremely dull or blunt 
knife which necessitates two or more cuts before a good 
joint is secured, the waste of timber is enormous. A 
careless or inefficient jointer can easily waste more tim- 
ber in a day's work than his wage amounts to. Take a 
slack stave jointer with a capacity of 10,000 staves per 
day, and supposing for illustration that he only cuts 
off just Viq inch more than is necessary on each joint 
(and % inch is often wasted), there being two edges to 



246 COOPERAGE 

each stave, would make V$ inch in waste, or about 1,250 
inches of valuable timber being sent to the boiler room 
each day, to be eventually used as fuel. This would be 
equal to a little over 300 staves per day, and on the basis 
of what might be termed an average price f. o. b. mills, 
would amount to something like $2.00 for each jointer. 
With four slack stave jointers working, which is about 
the usual crew, the loss on this waste of only Yiq inch 
would amount to $7.00 or $8.00 per day. • But supposing 
each operator cuts off Vs inch more than is necessary from 
each edge of a stave, and this will be found to be more 
probable than only M.6 inch, it would make this one item 
of unnecessary waste amount to about $16.00 each day. 
This is worth looking after, is it not? Apparently it 
would pay to engage a competent man, or one upon 
whom you could rely, simply to watch this particular 
point, in an endeavor to guard against such unnecessary 
extravagance. Some manufacturers make the serious 
mistake of telling their jointers just what per cent, they 
want the stock to run, and demand that this proportion 
shall be maintained. If the jointer happens to come to 
a part of a rick of staves which was manufactured from 
an unusually poor lot of timber, the results would be very 
unsatisfactory should he mechanically adhere to the in- 
structions given him, while later, when the stock ran bet- 
ter, he would be wasting good timber. Instances have 
occurred where staves, well cut and made of excellent 
timber have been ruined in the grading at the jointer's, 
causing considerable loss to the manufacturer; and, 
again, manufacturers in their eager desire to forward 
material or to get it on the market, ship stock that is 
wet or not thoroughly seasoned, causing considerable 
trouble to the consumer. This is a serious error, and the 
stave manufacturer would have done better had he pur- 
chased stock at a loss, rather than forward his own 
stock in poor condition. In caring for the jointing ma- 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 



247 



chine, the knife should be kept ground thin (Fig. 81, as 
at a), with a long bevel, and the point of the knife in the 
centre kept prominent and well sharpened. (Fig. 81, 
as at b.) A thick and naturally round point on the knife 
is the primary cause of failure to obtain a good, clean 
joint at the first stroke, and particularly is this so with 
gum or soft maple timber. The point of most makes of 
knives is generally 2 inches long, and should the knife 
be ground thick, it goes through the stave nearly two 
inches before the ends of the knife complete the cut. This 
is where the trouble lies, as it acts as a wedge and splits 




Fig. 81. Jointer Knife. 



out the wood ahead of the cut, and is one of the chief 
causes of poor workmanship and considerable waste in 
stave jointing. This round or thick bevel on the jointer 
knives, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 81, is caused 
by the knife not being ground often enough. Instead of 
taking the knife out and properly grinding it on the grind- 
stone, they merely rub it up with a file and then whet it ; 
of course, in this' operation the extreme point is taken 
off, and eventually the knife becomes thick and round 
and loses its shape, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 
81. Where gum staves are jointed, it has been found that 
a straight knife gives better satisfaction than the pointed 
knife, from the fact that it does not break out the ends 
of the staves, but the knife must be thinner than the old 
style and the bevel kept long and the edge sharp. In 
adopting this style of knife, the leverage on the treadle 



248 COOPERAGE 

shaft will have to be changed, as this straight knife is 
harder to force through the wood, but with this adjusted 
properly the knife goes through the wood just as easy 
as the old style jointing knife. To keep a stave jointer 
in proper condition to perform good work requires also 
that the sash works freely in the slides, with no play; 
that the chains pull evenly on each end of the sash; that 
the bearing plate be placed close up to the knife, with a 
square, true edge, as if the bearing plate is allowed to be- 
come worn round on the edge or is set too far away from 
the knife, it will not make a smooth joint, and especially 
is this true where dry stock is jointed. The rests should be 
in exact alignment in order to produce proper and equal 
bevel, the knife set' so as to make the bilge exactly in the 
centre of the stave, and the quarter exactly the same 
distance from each end. As to the proper bilge and quar- 
ter to put on the staves, it appears that manufacturers 
in different sections of the country vary as to this point. 
On the regular 30-inch stave for sugar products, experi- 
ence has proven that a full %-inch bilge joint with 7%- 
inch quarter is the proper thing; this means that when 
two staves are held together on the joint, that the joint 
will hold tight from the ends of the stave up to a point 
7y 2 inches from the ends. That is the proper joint for 
the modern machine shops, as the sugar refiners require 
a large barrel, and with a shorter quarter the packages 
do not head up well in the machines, or by hand labor 
for that matter. On 28 1 /2-inch flour barrel staves, opin- 
ion seems to vary, but on tests made a %-inch bilge joint 
with a 9-inch quarter seemed to produce the best results, 
and as figures show that three-fourths of all the flour 
barrels made are manufactured with %-inch bilge joint, 
this should be considered standard. As to style of joint, 
whether it should be square or bevel, from past experi- 
ence the bevel joint has easily proven the best. 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTUEE 249 

In order that the term ' ' quarter ' ' be fully understood, 
it may be well to state that the original practice in mak- 
ing staves that developed this term "quarter" was to 
have the stave joint run straight from the end back to 
a point one-quarter of the length of the stave, then the 
bilge raised from that point gradually to the centre and 
then return to the other quarter on the opposite end. 
Now, in the case of a 30-inch sugar barrel stave, this 
rule works to perfection. As stated before, a 7%-inch 




Fig. 82. Stave Packer or Bundling Machine. 

quarter has been found to give the best satisfaction, and 
30 inches divided by four equal parts gives you 7% inches, 
which is one-quarter the length of the stave; hence the 
term "quarter." In the case of flour barrel or 28%-inch 
staves, it has been found that a 9-inch quarter gives the 
best results. Naturally, therefore, nine inches from the 
end of a 28%-inch stave would not be the quarter, but 
coopers making this class of barrel prefer the bilge to 
start at a point nine inches from the ends of the stave, 
which is called the quarter point. Different lengths of 
staves, naturally, should have a different quarter, and 
care should be exercised in changing from one size to 
another that the proper quarter is observed. 



250 COOPERAGE 

STAVE BUNDLING OE PACKING 

For the packing of staves into bundles subsequent to 
shipment, the stave press is used. There are several dif- 
ferent types of these on the market, and they all work on 
about the same principle. The one illustrated in Fig. 82 
appears to be as good as any, and where used has given 
entire satisfaction. In the use of this machine the staves 
should be packed alternately wide and narrow ones, and 
so arranged that each and every bundle will contain as 
nearly 200 inches as possible ; this is figured as 50 staves 
averaging 4 inches per stave to each bundle, and is the 
standard method of packing. 

INSPECTION 

This matter of inspection is the one important link in 
slack stave manufacture which should be given much 
more attention than the average mill has applied to it. 
Herein lies the usefulness, reliability and quality of the 
barrel eventually manufactured from it, and the future 
success of the trade is more or less dependent upon this 
one point. A manufacturer uses very poor judgment 
when he will permit stock to leave his factory that is not 
up to the grade at which he has sold it. The one thing, 
undoubtedly, that contributes more to a mill turning out 
poor stock than any other is lack of properly trained and 
skilled labor, and more particularly so in the matter of 
inspection, and it is an economic necessity, both to the 
manufacturer and to the consumer, that effective steps 
be taken to secure better quality in material. This grad- 
ing of material is supposed to be carefully done by a 
process of inspection and selection at the jointer's, and 
instead of having a boy perform this work, as is often 
the case in the majority of mills, a competent man should 
be engaged— one that is thoroughly conversant with the 
business and the proper grading of staves. This may 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 251 

appear somewhat more expensive at first glance, but in 
the long run will prove much more economical. Right 
at this point is where the greatest care and attention is 
required, as this man, or sometimes boy, is expected to 
stamp the value or grade of each stave, as, for instance, 
"No. 1," "meal barrel," or "No. 2," and can easily in 
the course of a day's work throw away more than his 
weekly wage by improper inspection. Material which is 
not good enough for No. 1 stock can still be of service 
in a lower grade, but if staves of a lower grade happen 
to be included in a bundle of No. 1 grade, serious injury 
results. A few bad staves which have crept into the bun- 
dles first opened by the purchaser cause him to engage 
either in a long examination of every bundle, or more 
usually to assume that the imperfections run all through, 
and to demand adjustment and rebates accordingly, or to 
reject the shipment altogether. One of the most vex- 
atious matters in grading cooperage stock, and one 
which has caused considerable difficulty and loss, is 
the fact that some consumers require and demand 
standard quality, while others do not and are not so 
particular. Staves that ordinarily will pass inspec- 
tion and be accepted as No. 1 stock in one locality 
will be questioned and probably rejected in another. 
It is a well-known fact that there are consumers 
who use and accept what they consider a No. 1 stave, 
although it is not up to the specifications of the National 
Association or the general average of No. 1 stock as man- 
ufactured. About the only remedy for this difficulty 
would be not to joint out and inspect stock until one is 
fairly positive as to which locality shipment is intended, 
for if one man is satisfied with a lower grade others 
should not be expected to accept the same. The National 
Association rules and specifications on the proper grad- 
ing of staves are intelligently and plainly set forth. The 



252 COOPEEAGE 

difficulty lies in the fact that the party who actually does 
the grading and sorting has probably never seen these 
rules and is working solely upon instructions as handed 
him from the foreman, who also may never have given 
them any study or attention and relies solely upon his 
ideas as to what constitutes a No. 1, meal barrel, or No. 
2 stave. These rules and specifications as adopted by 
the Association should be thoroughly committed to mem- 
ory by each and every employee in and about a stave 
mill, and the manager or superintendent should see to 
it that they are supplied with a copy of same, and advised 
promptly of any changes or alterations. It pays im- 
mensely to educate your employees in the proper fulfil- 
ment of their duties, and employees in a stave mill can- 
not work intelligently unless kept posted in the Associa- 
tion's doings in regard to proper grading. 

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND GRADES 

The standard specifications and grades, as acted upon 
and adopted by the National Slack Cooperage Manufac- 
turers' Association as regards the proper grading of 
slack barrel staves, follows: 

Elm staves 28% inches and longer shall be five staves 
to lVs inches in thickness. 

Elm staves 24 inches and shorter shall be six staves 
to 2 inches in thickness. 

Gum, cottonwood, and basswood staves 28% inches and 
longer shall be five staves to 1 15 /iq inches in thickness. 

Gum, cottonwood, and basswood staves 24 inches and 
shorter shall be six staves to 2 inches in thickness. 

Hardwood staves, oak, beech, and maple 28% inches 
and longer shall be cut six staves to 2% inches in thick- 
ness. 

Hardwood staves, oak, beech, and maple 24 inches and 
shorter shall be cut six staves to 2 inches in thickness. 



SLACK STAVE MANUFACTURE 253 

No. 1 staves shall be cut full thickness, uniform 
throughout, free from knots, slanting shakes, dozy wood, 
badly stained with black and blue mildew, or any other 
defects that make the stave unfit for use in an A No. 1 
barrel. 

Meal barrel staves shall be free from slanting shakes 
over 1% inches long, knot holes, and unsound knots (but 
sound knots not over % inch in diameter shall be allowed), 
and shall consist 'of good, sound, workable staves. 

Mill-run staves shall consist of the run of the knife, 
made from regular run of stave logs, all dead culls thrown 
out. 

No. 2 staves shall be free from dead culls. 

Standard bilge, unless otherwise understood, shall be 
% inch on all staves up to and including 28% inches in 
length, and %-inch bilge on staves 30 inches in length. 

Standard quarter shall be 9 inches for flour barrel 
stock and 7% inches for sugar barrel. 

No. 1 staves shall not be less than 2% inches nor exceed 
5% inches across the bilge. 

Unless otherwise specified, all staves shall be thor- 
oughly dried. 

All barrel staves to be well seasoned when jointed and 
to average in measurement, after being jointed, 4 inches 
per stave, or 4,000 inches per 1,000 staves. 

Half-barrel staves 23 inches, 23% inches, or 24 inches 
to average in measurement when jointed 3% inches to the 
stave-, or 175 inches to the bundle of 50 staves. 

Keg staves to measure 160 inches to the bundle of 50 
staves. 

All staves to be measured across the bilge. 

SPECIAL STOCK 

White ash staves shall be cut five staves to 2% inches 
in thickness and be graded same as elm. 



254 COOPERAGE 

Mill-run apple barrel staves shall be cut six staves to 
2 inches in thickness, and shall consist of the run of the 
mill from regular run of stave logs, all dead culls thrown 
out. 

Cement barrel and all other staves not specifically men- 
tioned should be sold according to the local custom, or 
by special agreement. Same will apply as well to the 
bilge of these staves. 

All stock not specifically mentioned should be bought 
and sold on terms and specifications agreed upon between 
the buyer and seller. 

When staves shall be specified to be made of a certain 
kind or kinds of timber, in any deal or contract, any tim- 
ber other than that specified, if found mixed in with the 
timber specified, shall be classified as off-grade. 

DEAD CULL STAVES 

Dead cull staves are staves containing knot holes of 
over % inch in diameter; staves with coarse knots or 
badly cross-grained near quarter, that prevents staves 
being tressed in barrels; staves under Y± inch thick; 
staves with bad slanting shakes exceeding 6 inches in 
length, or with rot that impairs strength. 

The above specifications do not touch upon the sub- 
ject of wormholes, but where two or more wormholes are 
together in the bilge of a stave, this stave will, eight times 
out of ten, crack or break at that point; other than that, 
they are no disadvantage to a 30-inch stave when used 
for a sugar barrel, as these barrels are lined with paper, 
which would prevent sifting through such small holes; 
but in the case of 2834-inch flour barrel staves, where 
these wormholes go clear through the stave, it should not 
be classed as a No. 1 stave, and a limit should be placed 
on the percentage of stock allowable containing such 
holes, where staves are to be used for sugar. 



SECTION IX 



SLACK HEADING 
MANUFACTURE 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 



GENEEAL KEMAKKS 

In the report of the United States Forest Service on 
the production of slack barrel heading for the year 1908, 
which will be found in detail in Section VI, these figures 
indicate that pine ranks first among the woods chiefly 
used, followed by gum, beech, maple, and basswood, in 
the order of their importance. These five different kinds 
of wood furnish nearly two-thirds of all the heading man- 
ufactured. One noticeable feature in connection with this 
report is the rapid rise in favor of both red and tupelo 
gum as a heading wood, and confirms the impression had 
in mind the past few years that this species is destined 
to be the chief wood used in the future for the manufac- 
ture of this article. The chief and most discouraging 
problem experienced in the past with gum wood has been 
caused by the inexperience of manufacturers in the sea- 
soning and kiln-drying of this particular species of wood. 
But this problem now seems to have been solved with 
satisfaction, as little difficulty appears from this source. 
In one of the experiments of the Forest Service in this 
line, heading was dried in from six to seven days, direct 
from the saw. It probably takes from one to two weeks 
in practice, depending on the construction of the kiln and 
the methods used in drying. Different makes of kilns 
probably require varying lengths of time in drying. 

BOLTIXG OUT 

In the getting out of heading bolts, the reader is re- 
ferred to Section VIII, Slack Stave Manufacture, where, 
under the following heads, Bolting Eoom, Cut-Off Saw, 



258 COOPERAGE 

Drag-Saw, Drop-Feed Circular Saw, The Bolting Saw, 
and Stave and Heading Bolts, the preparation of same 
is thoroughly explained. Heading bolts, when properly 
prepared, do not require equalizing before being sawn 
into heading pieces or blanks, as a slight difference in 
their length one way or another does not affect the head 
before being turned or circled. But care should be taken 
that the bolts are not cut too long, as this creates a waste 
of timber which can easily be avoided, as one inch leeway 
between the finished size of the head and the rough head- 
ing blank is generally considered sufficient by careful 
heading manufacturers, and if the blanks are properly 
centred in the heading turner by the operator, it will be 
found to be quite enough. 

THE HEADING SAW 

When the heading bolt has been properly prepared it 
is taken to the heading saw, or, as styled by some of the 
trade, an upright, pendulous-swing saw (Fig. 83). This 
saw should be as large in diameter as the machine will 
allow, in order to secure the extra rim travel, which in- 
sures ease in cutting and admits of increased capacity. 
Kind of timber regulates the gauge of saw and number 
of teeth it should have. It would be impracticable to 
attempt to run a 60-inch saw, 20 gauge on the rim, in 
gum, ash, sycamore, or cottonwood, but perfectly so in 
white pine or cypress. Where beech, maple, and like 
hardwoods are sawn, a 50-inch saw with 86 teeth, 15 gauge 
at the rim and 6 gauge at eye or mandrel hole, running 
1,500 revolutions per minute, has been found to give best 
results. By not having too many teeth, you can secure 
more clearance for the sawdust, which will prevent the 
saw from running in and out of the timber when crowded, 
and it is also much easier for the man that operates the 
saw. And, again, too much speed will cause the machine 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 259 

to vibrate more or less, no matter how firm the founda- 
tion may be; therefore, 1,500 revolutions per minute 




Fig. 83. Pendulous Swing Heading Saw. 



should be the maximum at which a heading saw should 
be run, and an endeavor made to maintain it at that speed. 
The heavier the gauge of the saw, the more power is re- 



260 COOPERAGE 

quired to drive it and maintain it at its proper speed, 
and there is also a waste of timber, as it takes out a much 
larger saw kerf. Where gum, cottonwood, and woods of 
like nature are sawn, it has been found that a 50-inch saw 
with 64 teeth, 15 gauge on the rim, 10 gauge at eye or 
mandrel hole, and maintained at a speed of 1,500 revo- 
lutioDS per minute has given excellent results. A good 
sawyer with this saw properly fitted should saw out 
16,000 pieces of gum heading averaging 10 inches wide 
in 10 hours' work. In fitting heading saws, it must be 
kept in mind that they are subject to the same treat- 
ment as other saws receive, and must be kept in order 
by the same process. They will need to be taken off 
the collar frequently and hammered. No one who is 
not a careful man or who has not a fair and clear knowl- 
edge of saw-fitting should attempt to put one of these 
saws in order, as they are straight on one side and bev- 
elled outside the collar on the other, which makes them 
very difficult to get straight. Besides, the extra weight 
in the centre makes it almost impossible to determine 
the amount of tension you have. It is best where one 
has not a full knowledge of saw-fitting, to only attempt 
to straighten them. This can be easily done by remov- 
ing the collar and placing the saw on the end of a wooden 
block, which should be slightly oval, and by light blows 
smooth up the rim and true the plate, using the straight- 
edge on the straight side of saw only, leaving it slightly 
hollow on face side. This work will not expand the saw 
and will invariably put it in good condition, or enable 
the saw to be used until it can be hammered properly. 
On account of the position of the grain of timber to be 
sawn, the pitch of the teeth should be much greater than 
on the bolting saw. In fitting the teeth of this saw it 
has been found that a spring-set for gum and cotton- 
wood and a half swage for beech, maple, and like hard- 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 261 

woods has given the best results. Cottonwood is one 
of the most difficult woods to saw, and when working 
on this class of timber the points of the saw tooth should 
be almost needle points and the teeth given full set. The 
bottom of the swing carriage on this machine should 
be adjustable, so as to raise or lower it quickly when 
occasion requires it, in order to bring the centre of the 
block on a line with the centre of the saw, as a short 
block will be jerked into the saw, with the probable dan- 
ger of buckling it, while an extra long block will be very 
hard to feed if not placed in the centre ; but very few 
of these machines have this adjustment. In setting the 




Fig. 84. Horizontal Hand-feed Heading Saw. 

gauge for thickness, place a long straightedge across 
the face of the saw and set the gauge to it, letting the 
dish in the saw provide the lead. About % inch lead 
is considered ample for hardwoods; for softwoods a 
little less may be used. Leave the gauge set to thick- 
ness; continually moving the gauge one way, then an- 
other, will not insure even thickness heading. No one 
can make good lumber by using the guide to regulate 
the saw, nor can you saw good heading by manipulat- 



262 COOPERAGE 

ing the gauge. If the saw runs unevenly something is 
wrong, and the filer or saw-fitter should remedy the 
trouble. But if the saw is kept straight and true, the 
teeth all made of equal length, the saw gullets kept 
round, with just enough set to clear the blade of the saw, 
every tooth filed square across on face and bevelled on 
back, with plenty of hook, there should be no difficulty 
and it will run equal to any self-feed machine. 

* 

THE HORIZONTAL HAND-FEED HEADING SAW 

The horizontal hand-feed heading saw, as illustrated 
in Figs. 84 and 84%, is sometimes used, and the saw 




Fig. 84^. Horizontal Hand-feed Heading Saw. 

requires the same treatment as the upright heading 
saws, except this one point : The saw, by the nature of 
its position, is affected by gravity, as it expands by cen- 
trifugal force. It is also acted upon by the attraction 
of gravitation and the rim of the saw is drawn down, 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 263 

and in this shape has the appearance of an inverted sau- 
cer; and as the block is fed into the saw, it strikes a 
point on the saw generally opposite the collar and causes 
the carriage to rise against the upper guides, making it 
hard to feed and also causes the saw to run down and 
make thin-edged heading. To avoid this, remove the 
saw from the collar and hammer it on the straight side 
until it is fully Vie inch lower in the centre ; it will then 
not fall at the rim below the level and will perform better 
work. This is especially necessarj^ where high-speed 
power feed machines are used. It has also been found 
beneficial to carry a trifle more set on the upper side 
of these saws, as it has a tendency to hold the rim up 
while in the cut and does not wear off the swage of the 
teeth as the block is drawn back. Special care should 
be given the mandrel on these machines, all end play 
should be taken out and it should be kept plumb and 
level ; the flywheel and pulley should be in good running 
balance. Use as large a belt as the pulley will take, mak- 
ing it endless, and set the machine a good distance from 
the driving shaft. This will allow the use of a slack 
belt, which is always desirable, as it takes considerable 
strain from the bearings. 



SEASONING 

WHAT SEASONING IS 

Seasoning is ordinarily understood to mean drying. 
When exposed to the sun and air, the water in green 
wood rapidly evaporates. The rate of evaporation will 
depend on the kind of wood, the shape of the timber, and 
the condition under which the wood is placed or piled. 
Pieces of wood completely surrounded by air, exposed 
to the wind and the sun, and protected by a roof from 



264 COOPERAGE 

rain and snow will dry out very rapidly, while wood 
piled or packed close together so as to exclude the air, 
or left in the shade and exposed to rain and snow, will 
probably dry out very slowly and will be subject to 
mould and decay. But seasoning implies other changes 
besides the evaporation of water. Although we have as 
yet only a vague conception as to the exact nature of the 
difference between seasoned and unseasoned wood, it is 
A^ery probable that one of these consists in changes in 
the albuminous substances in the wood fibres, and pos- 
sibly also in the tannins, resins, and other incrusting 
substances. Whether the change in these substances is 
merely a drying out, or whether it consists in a partial 
decomposition is as yet undetermined. That the change 
during the seasoning process is a profound one there can 
be no doubt, because experience has shown again and 
again that seasoned wood fibre is very much more per- 
meable both for liquids and gases than the living, unsea- 
soned fibre. One can picture the albuminous substance 
as forming a coating which dries out and possibly dis- 
integrates when the wood dries. The drying out may 
result in considerable shrinkage, which may make the 
wood fibre more porous. It is also possible that there 
are oxidizing influences at work within these substances 
which result in their disintegration. Whatever the ex- 
act nature of the changes may be, one can say without 
hesitation that exposure to the wind and air brings about 
changes in the wood, which are of such a nature that the 
wood becomes drier and more permeable. When sea- 
soned by exposure to live steam, similar changes may 
take place; the water leaves the wood in the form of 
steam, while the organic compounds in the walls prob- 
ably coagulate or disintegrate under the high temper- 
ature. The most effective seasoning is without doubt 
that obtained by the uniform, slow drying which takes 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTUBE 265 

place in properly constructed piles outdoors, under ex- 
posure to the winds and the sun and under cover from 
the rain and snow, and is what has been termed "air- 
seasoning." By air-seasoning oak and similar hard- 
woods, nature performs certain functions that cannot 
be duplicated by any artificial means. Because of this, 
woods of this class cannot be successfully kiln-dried 
green from the saw. In drying wood, the free water 
within the cells passes through the cell walls until the 
cells are empty, while the cell walls remain saturated. 
When all the free water has been removed, the cell walls 
begin to yield up their moisture. Heat raises the absorp- 
tive power of the fibres and so aids the passage of water 
from the interior of the cells. A confusion in the use of 
the word "sap" is to be found in many discussions of 
kiln-drying; in some instances it means water, in other 
cases it is applied to the organic substances held in a 
water solution in the cell cavities. The term is best con- 
fined to the organic substances from the living cell. 
These substances, for the most part of the nature of 
sugar, have a strong attraction for water and water 
vapor, and so retard drying and absorb moisture into 
dried wood. High temperatures, especially those pro- 
duced by live steam, appear to destroy these organic 
compounds and therefore both to retard and to limit 
the reabsorption of moisture when the wood is subse- 
quently exposed to the atmosphere. Air-dried wood, 
under ordinary atmospheric temperatures, retains from 
10 to 20 per cent, of moisture, whereas kiln-dried wood 
may have no more than 5 per cent, as it comes from the 
kiln. The exact figures for a given species depend in 
the first case upon the weather conditions, and in the 
second case upon the temperature in the kiln and the 
time during which the wood is exposed to it. When wood 
that has been kiln-dried is allowed to stand in the open, 



266 COOPERAGE 

it apparently ceases to reabsorb moisture from the air 
before its moisture content equals that of wood which 
has merely been air-dried in the same place and under 
the same conditions. 

MANNER OF EVAPORATION OF WATER 

The evaporation of water from wood takes place 
largely through the ends, i. e., in the .direction of the 
longitudinal axis of the wood fibres. The evaporation 
from the other surfaces takes place very slowly out of 
doors, and with greater rapidity in a dry kiln. The 
rate of evaporation differs both with the kind of timber 
and its shape. Slack barrel staves and heading dry 
faster than tight barrel stock, from the fact that they 
are much thinner. Sapwood dries faster than heart- 
wood, and pine more rapidly than oak or other hard- 
woods. Tests made show little difference in the rate of 
evaporation in sawn and hewn stock, the results, how- 
ever, not being conclusive. Air-drying out of doors 
takes from two months to a year, the time depending on 
the kind of timber and the climate. After wood has 
reached an air-dry condition it absorbs water in small 
quantities after a rain or during damp weather, much 
of which is immediately lost again when a few warm, 
dry days follow. In this way wood exposed to the 
weather will continue to absorb water and lose it for 
indefinite periods. When soaked in water, seasoned 
wood absorbs water rapidly. This at first enters into 
the wood through the cell walls ; when these are soaked, 
the water will fill the cell lumen, so that if constantly 
submerged the wood may become completely filled with 
water. The following figures show the gain in weight 
by absorption of several coniferous woods, air-dry at 
the start, expressed in per cent, of the kiln-dry weight: 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 267 



ABSORPTION OF WATER BY DRY 


WOOD 






White Pine 


Red Cedar 


Hemlock 


Tamarack 


Air dried 


108 
100 
135 
147 
154 
162 
165 
176 
179 
"184 
187 
192 
198 
207 


109 
100 
120 
126 
132 
137 
140 
143 
147 
149 
150 
152 
155 
158 


111 
100 
133 
144 
149 
154 
158 
164 
168 
173 
176 
176 
180 
186 


108 


Kiln-dried . 


100 


In water 1 day 


129 


In water 2 days 


136 


In water 3 days 


142 


In water 4 days 

In water 5 days 


147 
150 


In water 7 days 

In water 9 days 


156 
157 


In water 11 days 


159 


In water 14 days 


159 


In water 17 days 


161 


In water 25 days 


161 


In water 30 days 


166 



DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN WOOD 



As seasoning means essentially the more or less rapid 
evaporation of water from wood, it will be necessary to 
discuss at the very outset where water is found in wood 
and its local and seasonal distribution in a tree. Water 
may occur in wood in three conditions: (1) It forms the 
greater part (over 90 per cent.) of the protoplasmic con- 
tents of the living cells; (2) it saturates the walls of all 
cells, and (3) it entirely or at least partly fills the cav- 
ities of the lifeless cells, fibres, and vessels. In the sap- 
wood of pine it occurs in all three forms; in the heart- 
wood only in the second form it merely saturates the 
walls. Of 100 pounds of water associated with 100 
pounds of dry wood substance in 200 pounds of fresh 
sapwood of white pine, about 35 pounds are needed to 
saturate the cell walls, less than 5 pounds are contained 
in living cells, and the remaining 60 pounds partly fill 
the cavities of the wood fibres. This latter forms the 
sap as ordinarily understood. It is water brought from 
the soil containing small quantities of mineral salts, and 
in certain species (maple, birch, etc.) it also contains 



268 COOPERAGE 

at certain times a small percentage of sugar and other 
organic matter. All the conifers (pines, cedars, junipers, 
cypresses, sequoias, yews and spruces) contain resin. 
Both resin and albumen, as they exist in the sap of woods, 
are soluble in water; and both harden with heat, much 
the same as the white of an egg, which is almost pure 
albumen. These organic substances are the dissolved 
reserve food stored during the winter in the pith rays, 
etc., of the wood and bark; generally but a mere trace 
of them is to be found. From this it appears that the 
solids contained in the sap, such as albumen, gum, sugar, 
resin, etc., cannot exercise the influence on the strength 
of the wood which is so commonly claimed for them. 
The wood next to the bark contains the most water. In 
the species which do not form heartwood the decrease 
toward the pith is gradual, but where this is formed the 
change from a more moist to a drier condition is usually 
quite abrupt at the sapwood limit. In long-leaf pine 
the wood of the outer one inch of a disk may contain 
50 per cent, of water; that of the next or second inch, 
only 35 per cent., and that of the heartwood only 20 per 
cent. In such a tree the amount of water in any one 
section varies with the amount of sapwood, and is there- 
fore greater for the upper than the lower cuts, greater 
for limbs than stems, and greatest of all in the roots. 
Different trees, even of the same kind and from the 
same place, differ as to the amount of water they con- 
tain. A thrifty tree contains more water than a stunted 
one, and a young tree more than an old one, while the 
wood of all trees varies in its moisture relations with 
the season of the year. Contrary to the general belief, 
a tree contains about as much water in winter as in sum- 
mer. The fact that the bark peels easily in the spring 
depends on the presence of inconnplete, soft tissue found 
between wood and bark during the season and has little 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTUBE 269 

to do with the total amount of water contained in the 
wood of the stem. Even in the living tree a flow of sap 
from a cnt occurs only in certain kinds of trees and under 
special circumstances; from boards, felled timber, etc., 
the water does not flow out, as is sometimes believed, but 
must be evaporated. The seeming exceptions to this rule 
are mostly referable to two causes: Clefts or "shakes" 
will allow water contained in them to flow out. And 
water is forced out of sound wood, if very sappy, when- 
ever the wood is warmed, just as water flows from green 
wood when put in the stove. 

RAPIDITY OF EVAPORATION" 

The rapidity with which water is evaporated, that is, 
the rate of drying, depends on the size and shape of the 
piece and on the structure of the wood. An inch board 
dries more than four times as fast as a 4-inch plank 
and more than twenty times as fast as a 10-inch timber. 
White pine dries faster than oak. A very moist piece 
of pine or oak will, during one hour, lose more than four 
times as much water per square inch from the cross- 
section, but only one-half as much from the tangential 
as from the radial section. In a long timber, where the 
ends or cross-sections form but a small part of the dry- 
ing surface, this difference is not so evident. Neverthe- 
less, the ends dry and shrink first, and being opposed 
in this shrinkage by the more moist adjoining parts, they 
check, the cracks largely disappearing as seasoning pro- 
gresses. High temperatures are very effective in evap- 
orating the water from wood, no matter how humid the 
air, and a fresh piece of sapwood may lose weight in 
boiling water, and can be dried to quite an extent in hot 
steam. In drying chemicals or fabrics, all that is re- 
quired is to provide heat enough to vaporize the moisture 
and circulation enough to carry off the vapor thus se- 



270 COOPEBAGE 

cured, and the quickest and most convenient means to 
these ends may be used. While on the other hand, in 
drying wood, whether in the form of standard stock or 
the finished product, the application of the requisite heat 
and circulation must be carefully regulated throughout 
the entire process or warping and checking are almost 
certain to result. Moreover, wood of different shapes 
and thicknesses is very differently affected by the same 
treatment. Finally, the tissues composing the wood, 
which vary in form and physical properties and which 
cross each other in regular directions, exert their own 
peculiar influence upon its behavior during drying. With 
our native woods, for instance, summer-wood and spring- 
wood show distinct tendencies in drying, and the same 
is true in a less degree of heartwood, as contrasted with 
sapwood. Or, again, pronounced medullary rays further 
complicate the drying problem. 

EFFECTS OF MOISTURE ON WOOD 

The question of the effect of moisture upon the 
strength and stiffness of wood offers a wide scope for 
study, and authorities differ in conclusions. Two au- 
thorities give the tensile strength in pounds per square 
inch for white oak as 10,000 and 19,500, respectively; 
for spruce, 8,000 to 19,500, and other species in similar 
startling contrasts. Wood, we are told, is composed of 
organic products. The chief material is cellulose, and 
this in its natural state in the living plant or green wood 
contains from 25 to 35 per cent, of its weight in moisture. 
The moisture renders the cellulose substance pliable. 
What the physical action of the water is upon the molec- 
ular structure of organic material, to render it softer 
and more pliable, is largely a matter of conjecture. The 
strength of a wooden block depends not only upon its 
relative freedom from imperfections, such as knots. 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 271 

crookedness of grain, decay, wormholes or ring shakes, 
but also upon its density, upon the rate at which it grew, 
and upon the arrangement of the various elements which 
compose it. The factors affecting the strength of wood 
are therefore of two classes: (1) Those inherent in the 
wood itself and which may cause differences to exist be- 
tween two pieces from the same species of wood or even 
between the two ends of a piece, and (2) those which are 
foreign to the wood, such as moisture, oils, and heat. 
Though the effect of moisture is generally temporary, 
it is far more important than is commonly realized. So 
great, indeed, is the effect of moisture that under some 
conditions it outweighs all the other causes which affect 
strength, with the exception, perhaps, of decided imper- 
fections in the wood itself. In the Southern States it is 
difficult to keep green timber in the woods or in piles 
for any length of time, because of the rapidity with which 
wood-destroying fungi attack it. This is particularly so 
during the summer season, when the humidity is greatest. 

SHRINKAGE OF WOOD 

Since in all our woods, cells with thick walls and cells 
with thin walls are more or less intermixed, and espe- 
cially as the spring-wood and summer-wood nearly 
always differ from each other in this respect, strains 
and tendencies to warp are always active when wood 
dries out, because the summer-wood shrinks more than 
the spring-wood, and heavier wood in general shrinks 
more than light wood of the same kind. If a thin piece 
of wood after drying is placed upon a moist surface the 
cells on the under side take up moisture and swell before 
the upper cells receive any moisture. This causes the 
under side of the piece to become longer than the upper 
side, and as a consequence warping occurs. Soon, how- 
ever, the moisture penetrates to all the cells and the piece 



272 COOPEEAGE 

straightens out. But while a thin board of pine curves 
laterally it remains quite straight lengthwise, since in 
this direction both shrinkage and swelling are small. If 
one side of a green board is exposed to the sun, warp- 
ing is produced by the removal of water and consequent 
shrinkage of the side exposed. As already stated, wood 
loses water faster from .the end than from the longitudi- 
nal faces. Hence the ends shrink at a different rate from 
the interior parts. The faster the drying at the surface, 
the greater is the difference in the moisture of the differ- 
ent parts, and hence the greater the strains and conse- 
quently also the greater amount of checking. This be- 
comes very evident when freshly cut wood is placed in the 
sun, and still more when put in a hot kiln. While most of 
these smaller checks are only temporary, closing up 
again, some large radial checks remain and even grow 
larger as drying progresses. Their cause is a different 
one and will presently be explained. The temporary checks 
not only occur at the ends, but are developed on the sides 
also, only to a much smaller degree. They become espe- 
cially annoying on the surface of thick planks of hard- 
woods, and also on peeled logs when exposed to the sun. 
So far we have considered the wood as if made up only 
of parallel fibres all placed longitudinally in the log. 
This, however, is not the case. A large part of the wood 
is formed by the medullary or pith rays. In pine over 
15,000 of these occur on a square inch of a tangential sec- 
tion, and even in oak the very large rays, which are read- 
ily visible to the eye, represent scarcely a hundredth part 
of the number which the microscope reveals, as the cells 
of these rays have their length at right angles to the 
direction of the wood fibres. If a large pith ray of white 
oak is whittled out and allowed to dry it is found to 
shrink greatly in its width, while, as we have stated, the 
fibres to which the ray is firmly grown in the wood do 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 273 

not shrink in the same direction. Therefore, in the wood, 
as the cells of the pith ray dry they pull on the longitudi- 
nal fibres and try to shorten them, and, being opposed 
by the rigidity of the fibres, the pith ray is greatly 
strained. But this is not the only strain it has to bear. 
Since the fibres shrink as much again as the pith ray, in 
this, its longitudinal direction, the fibres tend to shorten 
the ray, and the latter in opposing this prevents the for- 
mer from shrinking as much as they otherwise would. 
Thus the structure is subjected to two severe strains at 
right angles to each other, and herein lies the greatest dif- 
ficulty of wood seasoning, for whenever the wood dries 
rapidly these fibres have not the chance to "give" or 
accommodate themselves, and hence fibres and pith rays 
separate and checks result, which, whether visible or not, 
are detrimental in the use of the wood. The contraction 
of the pith rays parallel to the length of the board is 
probably one of the causes of the small amount of longi- 
tudinal shrinkage which has been observed in boards. 
The smaller shrinkage of the pith rays along the radius 
of the log (the length of the pith ray) opposing the 
shrinkage of the fibres in this direction becomes one of 
the causes of the second great troubles in wood season- 
ing, namely, the difference in the amount of the shrink- 
age along the radius and that along the rings or tangent. 
This greater tangential shrinkage appears to be due in 
part to the causes just mentioned, but also to the fact 
that the greatly shrinking bands of summer-wood are 
interrupted along the radius by as many bands of porous 
spring-wood, while they are continuous in the tangential 
direction. In this direction, therefore, each such band 
tends to shrink, as if the entire piece were composed of 
summer-wood, and since the summer-wood represents the 
greater part of the wood substance, this greater tendency 
of tangential shrinkage prevails. The effect of this 



274 COOPERAGE 

greater tangential shrinkage affects every phase of wood- 
working. It leads to permanent checks and causes the 
log to split open on drying. Sawed in two, the flat sides 
of the log become convex; sawed into timber, it checks 
along the median line of the four faces, and if converted 
into boards the latter checks considerably from the end 
through the centre, all owing to the greater tangential 
shrinkage of the wood. Briefly, then, shrinkage of wood 
is due to the fact that the cell walls grow thinner on 
drying. The thicker cell walls and therefore the heavier 
wood shrinks most, while the water in the cell cavities 
does not influence the volume of the wood. Owing to 
the great difference of cells in shape, size, and thickness 
of walls, and still more in their arrangement, shrinkage 
is not uniform in any kind of wood. This irregularity 
produces strains, which grow with the difference between 
adjoining cells and are greatest at the pith rays. These 
strains cause warping and checking, but exist even where 
no outward signs are visible. They are greater if the 
wood is dried rapidly than if dried slowly, but can never 
be entirely avoided. Temporary checks are caused by 
the more rapid drying of the outer parts of any stick; 
permanent checks are due to the greater shrinkage, tan- 
gentially, along the rings than along the radius. This, 
too, is the cause of most of the ordinary phenomena of 
shrinkage, such as the difference in behavior of entire 
and quartered logs, " bastard" (tangent) and rift (ra- 
dial) boards, etc., and explains many of the phenomena 
erroneously attributed to the influence of bark or of the 
greater shrinkage of outer and inner parts of any log. 
Once dry, wood may be swelled again to its original size 
by soaking in water, boiling, or steaming. Soaked pieces 
on drying shrink again as before; boiled and steamed 
pieces do the same, but to a slightly less degree. Neither 
hygroscopicity, i. e., the capacity of taking up water, nor 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 275 

shrinkage of wood can be overcome by drying at tem- 
peratures below 200° Falir. Higher temperatures, how- 
ever, reduce these qualities, but nothing short of a coal- 
ing heat robs wood of the capacity to shrink and swell. 
Rapidly dried in the kiln, the wood of oak and other 
hardwoods ' * caseharden " ; that is, the outer part dries 
and shrinks before the interior has a chance to do the 
same, and thus forms a firm shell or case of shrunken, 
commonly checked wood around the interior. This shell 
does not prevent the interior from drying, but when this 
drying occurs the interior is commonly checked along the 
medullary rays, commonly called "honeycombing" or 
hollow-horning. In practice this occurrence can be pre- 
vented by steaming or sweating the wood in the kiln, 
and still better by drying the wood in the open air or in 
a shed before placing in the kiln. Since only the first 
shrinking is apt to check the wood, any kind of lumber 
which has once been air-dried (three to six months for 
1-inch stuff) may be subjected to kiln heat without any 
danger. Kept in a bent or warped condition during the 
first shrinkage, the wood retains the shape to which it 
has been bent and firmly opposes any attempt at sub- 
sequent straightening. Sapwood, as a rule, shrinks more 
than heartwood of the same weight, but very heavy heart- 
wood may shrink more than lighter sapwood. The 
amount of water in wood is no criterion of its shrinkage, 
since in wet wood most of the water is held in the cav- 
ities, where it has no effect on the volume. The wood of 
pine, spruce, cypress, etc., with its very regular struc- 
ture, dries and shrinks evenly and suffers much less in 
seasoning than the wood of broad-leafed trees. Among 
the latter, oak is the most difficult to dry without injury. 
Desiccating the air with certain chemicals will cause the 
wood to dry, but wood thus dried at 80° Fahr. will still 
lose water in the kiln. Wood dried at 120° Fahr. loses 



276 COOPERAGE 

water still if dried at 200° Fahr., and this again will lose 
more water if the temperature is raised, so that abso- 
lutely dry wood cannot be obtained, and chemical destruc- 
tion sets in before all the water is driven off. On re- 
moval from the kiln, the wood at once takes up water 
from the air, even in the driest weather. At first the 
absorption is quite rapid; at the end of a week a short 
piece of pine 1% inches thick has regained two-thirds 
of, and in a few months all, the moisture which it had 
when air-dry, 8 to 10 per cent, and also its former dimen- 
sions. In thin boards all parts soon attain the same 
degree of dryness. In heavy timbers the interior re- 
mains moister for many months, and even years, than 
the exterior parts. Finally an equilibrium is reached, 
and then only the outer parts change with the weather. 
With kiln-dried woods all parts are equally dry, 
and when exposed the moisture coming from the 
air must pass in through the outer parts, and thus 
the order is reversed. Ordinary timber requires 
months before it is at its best. Kiln-dried timber, 
if properly handled, is prime at once. Dry wood 
when soaked in water soon regains its original vol- 
ume, and in the heartwood portion it may even sur- 
pass it; that is to say, swell to a larger dimension than 
it had when green. With the soaking it continues to in- 
crease in weight, the cell cavities filling with water, and 
if left many months all pieces sink. Yet after a year's 
immersion a piece of oak 2 by 2 inches and only 6 inches 
long still contains air; i. e., it has not taken up all the 
water it can. By rafting or prolonged immersion, wood 
loses some of its weight, soluble materials being leached 
out, but it is not impaired either as fuel or as building 
material. Immersion, and still more boiling and steam- 
ing, reduce the hygroscopicity of wood and therefore 
also the troublesome "working" or shrinking and swell- 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 277 

ing. Exposure in dry air to a temperature of 300° Fahr. 
for a short time reduces but does not destroy the hygro- 
scopicity, and with it the tendency to shrink and swell. 
A piece of red oak which has been subjected to a tem- 
perature of over 300° Fahr. still swells in hot water and 
shrinks in the kiln. In artificial drying temperatures 
of from 150° to 180° Fahr. are usually employed. Pine, 
spruce, cypress, cedar, etc, are dried fresh from the saw, 
allowing four clays for 1-inch stuff. Hardwoods, espe- 
cially oak, ash, maple, birch, sycamore, etc., are usually 
air-seasoned for three to six months to allow the first 
shrinkage to take place more gradually, and are then ex- 
posed to the above temperatures in the kiln for about 
six to ten days for 1-inch stuff, other dimensions in pro- 
portion. Freshly cut poplar and cottonwood are often 
dried direct from the saw in a kiln. By employing lower 
temperatures, 100° to 120° Fahr., green oak, ash, etc., 
can be seasoned in dry kilns without danger to the ma- 
terial. Steaming and sweating the lumber is sometimes 
resorted to in order to prevent checking and "case- 
hardening," but not, as has been frequently asserted, to 
enable the wood to dry. Air-dried stock is not dry, and 
its moisture is too unevenly distributed to insure good 
behavior after manufacture. Careful piling of the stock, 
both in the yard and kiln, is essential to good drying. 
Since the proportion of sap and heartwood varies with 
size, age, species, and individual, the following figures 
must be regarded as mere approximations: 

POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD 

IN THE KILN 



(1) Pines, cedars, spruces and firs 45-65 16-25 

(2) Cypress, extremely variable 50-65 18-60 

(3). Poplar, cottonwood, basswood 60-65 40-60 

(4) Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory, chest- 
nut, walnut and sycamore 40-50 30-40 




Heartwood 
or interior 



The lighter kinds have the most water in the sfpwood, thus sycamore has more than hickory. 



278 COOPERAGE 

DIFFICULTIES OF DRYING WOOD 

Seasoning and kiln-drying is so important a process in 
the manufacture of woods that a need is keenly felt for 
fuller information regarding it, based upon scientific 
study of the behavior of various species at different me- 
chanical temperatures and under different mechanical 
drying processes. The special precautions necessary to 
prevent loss of strength or distortion of shape render the 
drying of wood especially difficult. All wood when under- 
going a seasoning process, either natural (by air) or 
mechanical (by steam or heat in a dry kiln), checks or 
splits more or less. This is due to the uneven drying 
out of the wood and the consequent strains exerted in 
opposite directions by the wood fibres in shrinking. This 
shrinkage, it has been proven, takes place both endwise 
and across the grain of wood. The old tradition that 
wood does not shrink endwise has long since been shat- 
tered, and it has long been demonstrated that there is 
an endwise shrinkage. In some woods it is very light, 
while in others it is easily perceptible. It is claimed 
that the average end shrinkage, taking all the woods, is 
only about 1% per cent. This, however, probably has 
relation to the average shrinkage on ordinary lumber 
as it is used and cut and dried. Now, if we depart from 
this and take veneer, or basket stock, or even stave bolts 
where they are boiled, causing swelling both endwise 
and across the grain or in dimension, after they are 
thoroughly dried there is considerably more evidence of 
end shrinkage. In other words, a slack barrel stave of 
elm, say, 28 or 30 inches in length, after being boiled 
might shrink as much in thoroughly drying out as com- 
pared to its length when freshly cut as a 12-foot elm 
board. It is in the cutting of veneer that this end shrink- 
age becomes most readily apparent. In trimming with 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 279 

scoring knives it is done to exact measure, and where 
stock is cut to fit some specific place there has been ob- 
served a shrinkage on some of the softer woods, like 
cottonwood, amounting to fully Y 8 of an inch in 36 inches. 
And at times where the drying has been thorough the 
writer has noted a shrinkage of % of an inch on an ordi- 
nary elm cabbage-crate strip 36 inches long, sawed from 
the log without boiling. There really are no fixed rules 
of measurement or allowance, however, because the same 
piece of wood may vary under different conditions; and, 
again, the grain may cross a little or wind around the 
tree, and this of itself has a decided effect on the amount 
of what is termed "end shrinkage." There is more 
checking in the wood of broad-leaf trees than in that of 
coniferous trees, more in sapwood than in heartwood, 
and more in summer-wood than in spring-wood. Inas- 
much as under normal conditions of weather, water evap- 
orates less rapidly during early seasoning in winter, 
wood that is cut in the autumn and early winter is con- 
sidered less subject to checking than that which is cut 
in spring and summer. Rapid seasoning, except after 
wood has been thoroughly soaked or steamed, almost 
invariably results in more or less serious checking. All 
hardwoods which check or warp badly during season- 
ing should be reduced to the smallest practicable size 
before drying to avoid the injuries involved in this 
process, and wood once seasoned should never again be 
exposed to the weather, since all injuries due to season- 
ing are thereby aggravated. Seasoning increases the 
strength of wood in every respect, and it is therefore of 
great importance to protect it against moisture. 

UNSOLVED PROBLEMS IN KILN-DRYING 

1. Physical data of the properties of wood in relation 
to heat are meagre. 



280 COOPERAGE 

2. Figures on the specific heat of wood are not readily 
available, though upon this rests not only the exact opera- 
tion of heating coils for kilns, but the theory of kiln-dry- 
ing as a whole. 

3. Great divergence is shown in the results of experi- 
ments in the conductivity of wood. It remains to be seen 
whether the known variation of conductivity with moist- 
ure content will reduce these results to uniformity. 

4. The maximum or highest temperature to which the 
different species of wood may be exposed- without serious 
loss of strength has not yet been determined. 

5. The optimum or absolute correct temperature for 
drying the different species of wood is as yet entirely un- 
settled. 

6. The inter-relation between wood and water is as 
imperfectly known to dry-kiln operators as that between 
wood and heat. 

7. What moisture conditions obtain in a stick of air- 
dried wood? 

8. How is the moisture distinguished? 

9. What is its form? 

10. What is the meaning of the peculiar surface con- 
ditions which even in the air-dried wood appear to indi- 
cate incipient case-hardening? 

These questions can be answered thus far only by 
speculation or, at best, on the basis of incomplete data. 
Until these problems are solved, kiln-drying must neces- 
sarily remain without the guidance of complete scientific 
theory. 

KILN-DEYING 

Drying is an essential part of the preparation of wood 
for manufacture. For a long time the only drying process 
used or known was air-drying, or the exposure of wood to 
the gradual drying influences of the open air, and is what 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 281 

has now been termed preliminary seasoning. This 
method is without doubt the most successful and effective 
seasoning, because nature performs certain functions 
in air-drying that cannot be duplicated by artificial 
means. Because of this, hardwoods, as a rule, cannot 
be successfully kiln-dried green or direct from the saw. 
Kiln-drying, which is an artificial method, originated in 
the effort to improve or shorten the process by subject- 
ing the wood to a high temperature or to a draught of 
heated air in a confined space or kiln. In so doing, time 
is saved and a certain degree of control over the drying 
condition is secured. With softwoods it is a common 
practice to kiln-dry direct from the saw or knife. This 
procedure, however, is ill adapted for hardwoods, in 
which it would produce such checking and warping as 
would greatly reduce the value of the product. There- 
fore, hardwoods, as a rule, are more or less thoroughly 
air-dried before being placed in the dry-kiln, where the 
residue of moisture may be reduced to within three and 
four per cent., which is much lower than is possible by 
air-drying only. It is probable that for the sake of econ- 
omy, air-drying will be eliminated in the drying process 
of the future without loss to the quality of the product. 
The kiln-drying of staves and heading is one of the most 
important items in the manufacture of cooperage, and 
to do it properly requires constant care and attention. 
Where staves are kiln-dried, they should be piled in the 
kiln or on the trucks lengthwise, allowing the ends only 
to lap, and this should be the least amount possible. By 
this method it reduces the quantity of staves per truck, 
but facilitates drying, as they dry faster, more uniformly, 
and with better results. By cross-piling, the staves be- 
come flat and lose their proper circle. As to the time 
required in drying staves, this depends on three things : 
the species of wood to be dried, the condition of the 



282 COOPERAGE 

staves when they enter the kiln, and the intensity of the 
drying process. This generally varies from three or 
fonr days to about two weeks; probably a safe average 
would be one week on stock that is comparatively easy 
to dry, or that has been well steamed before cutting. 
It is well, where staves are kiln-dried direct from the 
knife, to get them into the kiln while they are still warm 
from the steaming, as they are then in good condition 
for kiln-drying, as the fibres of the wood are soft and 
the pores open, which will allow of forcing the evapora- 
tion of moisture. 

It is the practice among slack stock manufacturers 
to abide by the decision or judgment of their fore- 
men as to when the stock in the dry-kilns is sufficiently 
dry, and this decision is generally based entirely on 
observation. This practice is no doubt a good one, 
providing the party thus deciding is well versed in the 
drying subject and has had considerable experience in 
the matter; but there are a great many who have not 
this knowledge or experience and who have never made 
a study of this subject, and who operate their dry-kilns 
in a haphazard sort of way, either by subjecting all their 
stock to a given number of days, regardless of the con- 
dition of same when entering the drying room, or else 
entirely by their own judgment, which, in the majority 
of cases, is found to be unsatisfactory. System is as 
indispensable in this operation as at any other point in 
manufacture, and one should be guided somewhat by 
figures, indicating "about" the proper weight of the 
stock when leaving the kiln. This in itself will not guar- 
antee properly dried stock, but will cause investigations 
to be made, and will materially assist those upon whom 
this responsibility rests. It is quite a difficult matter to 
give specific or "absolutely correct" weights of slack 
staves when thoroughly or properly dried in order that 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 283 

one may be positively guided in these kiln operations, 
as a great deal depends npon the species of wood to be 
dried, its density, and upon the thickness which it has 
been cut. Elm will naturally weigh less than beech, and 
where the wood is close-grained or compact it will weigh 
more than coarse-grained wood of the same species. But 
from numerous experiments and investigations made at 
one of the largest slack barrel plants in this country, it 
has been found that when No. 1 30-inch staves cut from 
the different species of wood and of the thicknesses as 
shown in the table below conform to the weights as speci- 
fied that they are entirely satisfactory, and that for 
guidance in this matter can be safely relied upon. 

Beech, maple, etc., cut 6 staves to 2% inches should 
weigh about 940 pounds and not exceed 1,040 pounds per 
1,000 staves. 

Gum, cottonwood, etc., cut 5 staves to 1 15 Aq inches 
should weigh about 880 pounds and not exceed 980 pounds 
per 1,000 staves. 

Elm cut 5 staves to 1% inches should weigh about 800 
pounds and not exceed 900 pounds per 1,000 staves. 
Other sizes in proportion. 

In the kiln-drying of heading blanks considerable im- 
portance attaches to the piling on trucks in such a man- 
ner as to avoid moulding, warping or checking, and this 
is especially so with gum. To obviate the first difficulty, 
a space of not less than six or eight inches should be 
left between the ricks. The uneven lapping of the head- 
ing blanks either at the ends or sides is sure to cause 
warping, and the general preference is given to cross- 
sticks rather than interlocking the heading blanks. These 
cross-sticks should be not more than 1V± inches wide by 
about % or 1 inch in thickness, and when used have a 
tendency to prevent warping; whereas, if the heading 
blanks are simply interlocked, any tendency of some one 



284 COOPERAGE 

piece to warp or twist may communicate itself to another, 
but where the cross-sticks are used they will exert a re- 
straining influence. The heading blanks of the upper 
layer, being subjected to the greatest amount of heat 
and ordinarily without weight to hold them in shape, 
should have planks or some device superimposed to put 
the upper course under conditions similar to those lower 
in the pile; otherwise these topmost layers will warp. 
As to the time required for drying heading blanks, this 
also depends on the species of timber, condition when 
entering kiln, and the intensity of the drying method. 
No set rules can be laid down, as good judgment only 
should be used, as the quality of the drying is not purely 
one of time. Sometimes the comparatively slow process 
gives excellent results, while to rush a lot of stock 
through may be to turn it out so poorly seasoned that 
it will not give satisfaction when worked. The mistreat- 
ment of the material in this respect results in numerous 
defects, chief among which are warping and twisting, 
checking, case-hardening, and honeycombing, or, as some- 
times called, hollow-horning. Many woods, as, for ex- 
ample, tupelo and red gum, will warp and twist in dry- 
ing unless special care is taken. This difficulty is not 
alone confined to kiln-drying, but is quite as great in air- 
seasoning. In fact, drying in the open with exposure to 
the sun often develops the worst examples, especially so 
with the top layers of each pile. If the kiln-drying is 
too rapid the stock may open up at the ends, which is 
termed checking. Frequently checks which appear after 
kiln-drying *were originally formed during previous air- 
drying and are merely reopened in the kiln. These may 
readily be distinguished from fresh checks formed in 
the kiln, since their inner surfaces have been filled with 
dust and darkened by the weather. Case-hardening- 
occurs when the kiln-drying is pushed too rapidly with- 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 285 

out proper precaution ; the surface of the wood becomes 
dry and impervious, while the interior remains almost 
as moist as before, and thorough drying is thus quite 
prevented, and an effort to secure it produces honey- 
combing or hollow-horning. Honeycombing can occur 
only together with case-hardening. It is, in effect, in- 
ternal checking in which the checks, following the med- 
ullary rays, may run nearly from end to end of the piece, 
but do not except in extreme cases show upon the sur- 
face. In piling heading blanks on the yard for air-season- 
ing, care should be taken to keep the piles or ricks well 
clear of the ground. At least eight inches should be the 
minimum, in order to allow of good air circulation. There 
are different methods of piling: some pile in large, hol- 
low, circular piles; others use smaller ones, while some 
pile in long, hollow, rectangular or square piles. Either 
method will bring good results if care is taken that the 
heading blanks are not given too much lap and the ricks 
kept well separated. The least amount of lap gives the 
best results. The long, hollow, rectangular or square 
piles are the most acceptable form of piling, from the 
fact that more space can be utilized and the foundations 
more easily laid. The piles or ricks can then be bound 
together, and the whole becomes a stanch and rigid mass. 



THE HEADING ROOM 

HEADING PLANEB 

The heading blanks being thoroughly air-dried or kiln- 
dried, as the case may be, are then brought to the head- 
ing room for finishing and turning. Where heading 
pieces have been kiln-dried, they should at all times be 
left standing under cover, subject to the atmosphere for 



286 COOPERAGE 

at least 48 hours before turning to size, in order that the 
timber may become thoroughly acclimated, as this will 
materially lessen the possibility of the finished heading 
swelling beyond size while en route to destination, or if 
kept in storage for future use. When heading pieces 
that have been thoroughly kiln-dried are taken direct 
to the jointer from the dry-kilns, they are generally drier 
than the surrounding atmosphere, and after being jointed 
and circled they immediately begin to absorb this moist- 
ure, and naturally will do so through the ends. This 
causes the ends of the pieces to swell, and the original 
joint is altered or lost, making heading joint "much 
more open in centre" than is desired, while if the head- 
ing pieces were allowed to become thoroughly acclimated 
before jointing or turning this would not occur. And, 
again, if the heading pieces are taken to jointer before 
they are properly or thoroughly dried, they naturally 
contain more moisture than the surrounding atmosphere, 
and immediately begin to throw off this excessive moist- 
ure, with the result that the heading joint is again altered 
or lost. But these conditions being the reverse to the 
former, the joint becomes open on the ends, and the 
finished head is eventually much smaller than originally 
intended. Considerable care should be given to this point 
in heading manufacture, as this is one of the chief causes 
of difficulty with finished heading, and has been the means 
of considerable expense and anxiety both to the consumer 
and the manufacturer. Considering that the heading 
pieces have "been properly dried and then thoroughly ac- 
climated, they are then taken to the heading planer, 
Fig. 85. These surface planers accommodate two knives 
24 inches long on the cylinder and should be run at 4,500 
revolutions per minute. Considerable care should be 
taken in grinding that these knives are kept evenly bal- 
anced as regards one another, and also each knife should 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 287 

be evenly balanced in relation to itself ; that is, it should 
be of same weight at one end as at the other. This can 
be easily determined by the use of a knife-balancing 
scales, as shown in Fig. 39% ; for, should these knives be 
out of balance, the knife cylinder running at such speed 
would cause them to jump and rattle, putting consider- 
able strain on the machine, and particularly on the cylin- 




Fig. 85. Heading Planer. 



der bearings, which in time would wear them oblong, 
causing the knife cylinder to rise or jump up and down 
while in motion, giving the finished head, or the stuff 
planed, a rough, wavy surface. Particular attention 
should also be given that the knives have the proper 
bevel, so that while revolving the heel of the knife will 
clear the material being planed, keeping the cutting edge 
prominent. A good rule to observe in this respect is to 
always make the bevel of the knife a trifle less than twice 



288 



COOPERAGE 



its thickness, and this rule will apply in all cases where 
knives are used. A great many operators, when these 
planer knives get dull, instead of taking them off the 
machine and grinding them properly, merely use a hand 
file, and after one or two applications of this method of 
sharpening the bevel is round, does not clear the material, 
and turns out very unsatisfactory work, at the same time 




Fig. 86. Heading Jointer. 



subjecting the machine to unnecessary strains. This 
surface planer should be set about 8 or 10 feet from 
and on the right hand side of the heading jointer. A 
table should then be built the same height and width of 
the discharge end of the planer and attached thereto, 
leading toward the jointer, so that the heading pieces 
when planed are fed directly to the operator on the 
jointer. This method insures capacity, as a good oper- 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 289 

ator on the heading jointer should easily in this man- 
ner joint as many heading pieces as can be put through 
the planer. 

THE HEADING JOINTER 

Next in order in the process of manufacture is the 
heading jointer. (Fig. 86.) Experience has proven that 
a 5-foot wheel jointer running at a speed of 650 revolu- 
tions per minute is easily the best for this purpose, as 
with a jointer of this class the knife, which is 21 inches 
long, has good shearing qualities and cuts as much at 
the point of the knife as at the heel, and, consequently, 
wears away evenly from end to end of knife edge. In a 
wheel jointer of smaller diameter, the heel or end of knife 
nearest the centre of the wheel has to do much more cut- 
ting than the point or upper end, and naturally will re- 
quire grinding or sharpening more often to insure good 
joints. Also, it has been found that an operator can joint 
more heading pieces with less labor on a 5-foot wheel 
than on a wheel jointer of smaller diameter, from the 
fact that the larger wheel cuts more freely. Some 
manufacturers use a saw jointer for this purpose, but 
while these saw machines turn out a very satisfactory 
joint, they are not to be compared with a wheel jointer 
for speed or capacity, as an experienced operator can 
easily joint from 3,500 to 4,000 sets heading in a day's 
work of ten hours on the wheel jointers, while a little 
more than half of this amount would be the limit on a 
saw jointer, as more time is consumed in determining 
the necessary cut. Where hardwoods or timber that is 
more or less cross-grained is being worked, smoother 
joints and much better results can be obtained by using 
caps on the knives of these wheel jointers. These caps 
should be filed to same gauge as the jointer knife and 
about Viq inch flat on the under side where it lies adjacent 



290 COOPERAGE 

to the cutting edge of knife, so that when tightened down 
it will have a good bearing surface and will prevent shav- 
ings from getting under or between knife and cap. These 
knives and caps should also be kept well balanced in rela- 
tion to one another. It is always a good rule to mark 
these knives and caps consecutively from 1 to 6 with a 
centre punch, that is, putting one mark on the first knife 
and cap and marking the slot or opening in jointer wheel 
the same; two marks on the next, three. on the third, and 
so on. Then these knives and caps which have the same 
marks should always travel together and always be put 
in opening on wheel of same number. For instance, knife 
and cap marked 4 should be put in slot 4 on jointer wheel, 
etc. In balancing, these knives and caps should be of 
same weight as knife and cap directly opposite in wheel ; 
for instance, knife marked 1, travelling directly oppo- 
site knife 4. These should be of same weight, likewise 
knives 2 and 5, and knives 3 and 6. By balancing in this 
manner it insures equal weight on opposite sides of the 
jointer, and the wheel will run smooth and true when 
at its full speed. 

In grinding or sharpening these jointer knives, care 
must be exercised that they are all ground alike or of 
the same shape on the cutting edge. For this purpose 
a gauge should be used, one made of steel is the best, 
and as a straight joint has been found to be the most 
desirable for slack barrel heading, this steel gauge should 
be made in the manner of a straightedge, and each and 
every jointer knife ground in like manner. In setting 
these knives in the jointing wheel, care should also be 
taken that they are all set alike ; that is, each knife must 
protrude just so far from or through the face of the 
wheel. Quality and kind of timber jointed determine 
this to a certain extent, but where hardwoods are jointed 
less knife is desirable than if the timber was of the soft- 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 291 

wood or coniferous species. In practice it will be found 
that about % 2 -inch set will produce the better results, 
and for this purpose a small gauge should also be made 
of steel, with a small notch filed in the centre to the de- 
sired depth, so that in setting these knives the heel and 
toe of each knife is brought out from the face of the 
wheel to the depth of this notch in the gauge. In this 
manner each and every knife will be set alike. It is also 
advisable occasionally to stop the wheel and go over each 
knife with the gauge to satisfy one's self that they are 
properly set or that none of them have slipped, which 
happens quite frequently. 

In operation, the heading piece should be held firmly 
up to the face of the wheel and not allowed to chatter, 
as this produces a poor joint; and in feeding, the blank 
should be fed evenly,, that is, there should be the same 
amount of pressure applied to one end as to the other 
and an effort made to joint "with the grain" of the wood, 
otherwise the grain may be crossed, and this will have a 
tendency to cause rough joints. And, again, if the oper- 
ator does not feed the heading blank evenly, but feeds 
it to the wheel, first one end and then the other by a sort 
of rocking motion, it will produce a joint that will be 
high in the centre and cause the joints on the finished 
heads to be open on the ends, sometimes leaving the im- 
pression that the heading blanks were not sufficiently 
dry and that they had shrunk after being turned to size. 
Care should also be taken that too much timber is not 
wasted by unnecessary jointing. The heading blank 
should not be held up to the face of the wheel too long. 
It is a good plan occasionally to take about 50 or 75 
pieces or heading blanks, measure them carefully across 
their width, allowing sufficient margin for jointing prop- 
erly, and then without the knowledge of the operator on 
the wheel send them through the planer, and after he has 



292 COOPERAGE 

jointed them measure them again, and you may be sur- 
prised at the amount of timber your operator at the 
jointer is wasting. The operator on this machine should 
be schooled in economy, and not permitted to waste un- 
necessarily timber which is valuable by sending it 
through the shaving pipe to the boiler room to be eventu- 
ally used as fuel. 

MATCHING OK ASSEMBLING 

After the heading pieces or blanks have been properly 
jointed they are matched, or the pieces assembled for 
the size head to be turned. Here is where too much care 
and attention cannot be given, as a careless operator at 
this position can easily and without much exertion cause 
more waste of timber, with its consequent lessening of 
profits, in one day than the total value of his wages will 
amount to in one month. As stated before, all econom- 
ical heading manufacturers consider that a leeway of 
one inch is amply sufficient, considering that the oper- 
ator at the heading turner properly centres the heading 
pieces ; and any heading pieces or blanks that have been 
assembled or matched up larger than this amount, the 
surplus may be considered as a wilful waste of timber. 
This point can be easily checked up by a careful watch 
on the "bats" or waste wood sawn from each head that 
is being continually wheeled out to the boiler room. 
And, again, it makes quite a difference which way these 
blanks are matched up ; narrow pieces should always be 
placed in the centre of the head and the wider ones on 
the "cant," as small, narrow cants are extremely diffi- 
cult to hold in the bundle and also more or less difficult 
to put into the barrel. And then where one of these 
small cants happens to drop out of the bundle before 
it has reached the cooper, the balance of the head is use- 
less until it has been rematched. It is generallv the 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 



293 



rule to assemble these heading pieces in piles up to a 
convenient height on a bench or short skid, and as the 
operator on the heading turner finishes one pile the next 
one is shoved up to within easy reach. 



THE HEADING TUKNEE 



These heading turners (Fig. 87) are designed for cir- 
cling all sizes of heading or square-edge covers, and are 




Fig. 87. Heading Turner. 



almost automatic in their operation. Aside from placing 
the heading blanks in between the clamps, all that is 
necessary of the operator is to tread upon a foot lever, 
and by this one operation the heading pieces are clamped, 
then immediately brought in contact with the saw, and 
the machine put in motion. When the head has been 



294 



COOPERAGE 



turned the machine throws itself out of gear, discharges 
the finished head, and is in position to receive another. 
The operator, having no need to touch the machine with 
his hands, can have the next head ready to drop into 







. i 








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> w£ ^< 1 \ \ \ 




[tor\5 


S #x^. gro^K \ \ \ 




f 




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li / / 

i / 
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Fig. 88. Sketch Showing Method of Determining Proper Concave or 

Circle of Heading Saws. 



the machine the moment the finished one has been dis- 
charged. The speed of these saws should be 5,000 revo- 
lutions per minute, and the machine placed about 6 or 8 
feet from the matching bench. The heads should be 
matched in piles of 20 set each and slid along a small 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTUEE 295 

runway or skid to the heading turner. These heading 
turners are equipped with a chamfering saw, i. e., a flat 
steel cutter head of varying thickness, which turns the 
outside bevel on the head, and a small, concaved, circular 
saw. These concave saws are made right and left hand. 
By holding the saw so that the teeth point toward you, 
if the saw concaves to the right it is a left-hand saw, and 
if it concaves to the left it is a right-hand saw. These 
saws are also made to concave to different circles. The 
size of the head to be turned determines the circle saw 
necessary to be used in order that the proper bevel may 
be sawn on the head or that the saw will not bind in 
the cut, which will cause it to overheat on the rim, and 
the unequal expansion will invariably result in the saw 
cracking. The smaller the diameter of the head to be 
turned, a relatively smaller circle or dish of the concave 
saw should be used. This can best be explained by re- 
ferring to Fig. 88, where it will be readily seen that the 
head represents a segment of a given circle. The size 
of this circle corresponds to the dish or concave that is 
necessary in the saw in order properly to turn the size 
head desired. To determine this circle, it is necessary 
first to sketch the head, as shown, or one-half of it ; then 
divide it equally and draw a vertical line, as shown at A, 
representing the centre of the head; then trace on the 
head the bevel desired, as at B, and inscribe a circle 
with the point of radius on the vertical line as at C, to 
correspond to the bevel as already drawn; then the di- 
ameter of this circle will represent the proper dish or 
circle saw required for this particular size head. Of 
course, the same circle saw can be used for different size 
heads where the variation is not too great, but it is not 
practicable to use the same saw where the variation in 
size is greater than one inch. If a concave saw of the 
proper dish or circle corresponding with the diameter of 



296 COOPERAGE 

the head to be turned is used, the centre line of the saw 
arbor, as shown from D to E, will intersect the vertical 
line A, as at C. This vertical line represents the centre 
of the bearings on the clamps which hold the head while 
it is being turned. This being the case, the blank head 
will swing into the concave saw on a circle concentric 
with the circle of the saw, and therefore will not bind 
either on the inside or the outside of the saw, the set of 
the saw teeth giving the necessary clearness. If, how- 
ever, the centre line of the saw arbor,. as shown, does not 
intersect the vertical axis of the heading clamp, the head 
will bind, causing the saw to heat on the rim, as stated; 
and this unnecessary heating will cause unequal expan- 

Top. 





Full %5/££X 

Fig. 89. Proper Bevel for Slack Heading. 

sion, which, in its turn, will invariably result in the saw 
cracking. To keep these concave saws in order so that 
they will produce satisfactory results, set the teeth alike 
on both sides of the plate. To do this, where these saws 
are set by hand, use a small piece of steel plate filed on 
one edge, concave, so that it will fit the convex side of 
the saw; the other edge convex, to fit the concave side of 
the saw. Then file a notch on each side to the proper 
depth, and spring each tooth to this gauge. As these 
saws are called upon to cut with the grain as well as 
across the grain, they require less bevel on the teeth 
than a regular cut-off saw. They should be, therefore, 
filed straight across in front and bevelled on the backs 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 297 

of the teeth. Keep the same amount of hook on the 
front of each tooth and file the gullets or sawdust cham- 
bers round by the use of a round-edge file or emery wheel, 
and do not run the saw when dull, as it is much easier to 
keep a saw in shape by frequent filing than it would be 
if the saw was kept at work until the points of the teeth 




Fig. 90. Heading Press. 



were rounded and the shape of the tooth practically lost. 
As to the proper bevel for a slack barrel head, Fig. 89 
shows the style which is full size, that has been considered 
as correct by some of the largest consumers of heading 
in this country. The bevel on slack heading should not 
be made too sharp, as when it is put into the package 
"stiff" it has a tendency to cut into and weaken the 
chime. And, again, should the bevel be made too blunt, 



298 



COOPERAGE 



it does not enter the croze properly, and the head is liable 
to fall out should the package receive a sharp, sudden 
jolt. This matter of bevel is quite as important as any 
other point in heading manufacture, and should be given 
its proper share of attention. 

BUNDLING OK PACKING 

After the heading has been properly turned it is 
packed in bundles and bound with wire or flat steel 
bands. This bundling is accomplished, by the aid of the 
heading packer, as shown in Fig. 90. It is the general 
custom to pack these heads 20 set to the bundle, but it 
is the opinion of the writer and others that a standard 
of 15 set per bundle would be much more satisfactory. 
With this number in each bundle and the bundles bound 




Fig. 91. View Showing Results of Poor Bundling. 



SLACK HEADING MANUFACTURE 299 

with three wire ties of 11-gange wire would produce a 
package more acceptable to the cooper, and one that 
could be shipped any distance without the contents arriv- 
ing at its destination resembling a carload of kindling- 
wood, as shown in Pig. 91. This shipment was actually 
unloaded by the writer, and is only one of many which 
have been received in like condition. Twenty set to a 
bundle is too heavy a package to handle economically 
and with any satisfaction, as they are difficult to store 
and equally as difficult to take down from the pile, and 
fully 15 per cent, are more or less broken or in bad condi- 
tion before they are in the hands of the cooper. And, 
again, the writer has observed that shipments of head- 
ing arrive at destination in much better condition when 
the bundles are piled in the car in a standing position 
instead of being laid down, as shown in Fig. 91. This 
is another point that will bear investigation. 

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND GRADES 

The standard specifications and grades, as acted upon 
and adopted by the National Slack Cooperage Manufac- 
turers' Association as regards the proper grading of 
slack heading, follows: > 

No. 1 basswood, cottonwood, or gum heading shall be 
manufactured from good, sound timber, thoroughly kiln- 
dried, turned true to size, and shall be % inch in thick- 
ness after being dressed on one side; of such diameter 
as is required, well jointed, and free from all defects 
making it unfit for use in No. 1 barrels, with straight 
joints unless otherwise specified. 

No. 1 hardwood or mixed timber heading shall be of 
same specifications as above, excepting that the thick- 
ness after being dressed shall be V\q inch. 

Mill-run heading shall be the forest run of the log, 



300 COOPERAGE 

or bolt, well manufactured, of standard thickness and 
kiln-dried; all dead culls to be thrown out. 

No. 2 heading shall be heading sorted from the No. 1 
and to be put up so that it is workable and free from 
dead culls. 

Dead-cull heading is classified as anything not useful 
nor serviceable, such as knot holes of over % inch in 
diameter, bad slanting shakes, rotten timber, or Mother 
bad defects that make it unworkable. 

All heading to be well bundled; number of pieces to 
the head not to exceed the following: 

No. 1 and mill-run grades, 13% to 15% inches, inclusive, 
four-piece. 

No. 1 and mill-run grades, above 15% to 17% inches, 
inclusive, three and four-piece; at least 50 per cent, to 
be three-piece. 

No. 1 and mill-run grades, 18 to 19% inches, inclusive, 
three, four and five-piece ; at least 50 per cent, to be four- 
piece or less. 

All stock not specifically mentioned should be bought 
and sold on terms and specifications agreed upon between 
the buyer and seller. 

"When heading shall be specified to be made of a cer- 
tain kind or kinds of timber in any deal or contract, any 
timber other than that specified, if found mixed in with 
the timber specified, shall be classified as off-grade. 



SECTION X 



SLACK BARREL HOOP 
MANUFACTURE 



THE MANUFACTURE OF HOOPS 



GENERAL REMARKS 

Since elm timber, has become so scarce and the first 
quality high in price, manufacturers of hoops in the 
northern parts of the country are facing a serious prob- 
lem. It is generally conceded that hoops, as well as all 
other cooperage stock, should be marketed at a reason- 
able price, and manufacturers interested in the perma- 
nent trade desire to keep the values consistent with those 
of staves and heading, especially since the wire and flat- 
steel hoops have made such serious encroachments of 
late years upon their trade. With the exception of a few 
manufacturers in Michigan, there are no concerns hold- 
ing large quantities of elm timber or timbered lands, and 
it is commonly admitted that small factories temporarily 
located where tracts of elm timber can be found are bet- 
ter propositions than more permanent institutions. 

In the South, conditions are somewhat different. The 
amount of elm found to the acre is small, and in some 
localities the timber is very brash, and if the best qual- 
ity of stock is made, large quantities of defective hoops 
must be thrown away during the process of manufacture. 
The most advantageous locations for hoop mills in the 
South seem to be river points, so that a large area can 
be covered. Starting with the purchasing and cutting 
of the timber, there are many opportunities for mis- 
takes and losses before the manufactured hoop is loaded 
into the car. In the first place, timber must be bought 
of the right quality. Though some trees show green leaves 
and are apparently in good condition, many are, at the 



304 COOPERAGE 

same time, so old that they are not a profitable invest- 
ment for hoop timber. Dry rot has set in, and especially 
near the heart the wood is a total waste. Second-growth 
hard elm generally makes a very poor hoop. In the saw- 
mill such timber cannot be separated into stave bolts 
and hoop plank, as can many logs having common defects, 
but the entire piece is often unfit for hoops, and had bet- 
ter be left in the woods. Eaw material purchased for 
the purpose of making flat or coiled hoops should be, if 
possible, sound timber, free from knots, wormholes, splits, 
and wind-shakes, and must be a kind of wood that will 
coil easily when steamed or boiled without undue break- 
age. 

THE PATENT HOOP 

What is known as "the patent hoop" is a thin strip 
of tough wood, principally elm, between 1 and 2 inches 
wide and 4 to 7 feet long. It is made with one edge 
thick and the other edge thin. The thick edge should 
be nearly twice the thickness of the thin edge, and this 
difference in thickness should be entirely on the inside 
of the hoop, forming a bevel to conform to the shape of 
the barrel or package, while the outside of the hoop 
should be straight. (See Fig. 92.) The standard barrel 




Fig. 92. End Section of Patent Hoop. 

hoop should be 1% inches wide, with the thick edge 5 Aq 
inch and the thin edge % 6 inch in thickness. One end 
of the hoop is pointed, while the other end is thinned 
down like a wedge and forms what is termed the lap. 
Both the thick and thin edges of the hoop are rounded. 



SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 305 

METHODS OF MANUFACTURE 

There are two distinct methods of manufacturing the 
coiled elm hoop and several systems for doing the work 
that differ somewhat in detail, but for commercial pur- 
poses we can divide it into the two general methods of 
cutting and sawing. In the former method, that of cut- 
ting, the timber is sawn into planks at the sawmill of a 
thickness that will make the width of a hoop, then cross- 
cut to proper length, after which it is put into a boiling 
vat, and when the wood fibres are properly softened by 
the hot water the planks are taken to the hoop cutter and 
sliced by a large knife into thin strips or hoops, and then 
pointed and lapped. 

Where sawn hoops are made, the timber is also sawn 
into planks at the sawmill, but instead of being boiled 
and cut with a knife, the plank is run through a gang 
ripsaw, which saws it into bars that are of sufficient 
thickness or size to split and make two hoops. By this 
it can be readily seen that it requires more timber to 
make a given amount of sawn hoops than it does to make 
the same number of cut hoops, because a certain amount 
of the wood is wasted in sawdust. In fact, it is esti- 
mated that there is a difference of about 1,000 hoops in 
every 1,000 feet of logs. In other words, it has been 
found that 1,000 feet of elm logs of hoop grade will make 
approximately 4,000 cut hoops, while it has been found 
that 3,000 is nearer the average if the timber is put into 
sawn hoops. 

With this great difference in favor of cut hoops, it 
appears there would never be any sawn hoops made, 
especially since elm timber is becoming so scarce; but 
there are other factors which enter into the matter and 
make the sawn process the favorite in some cases. One 
thing in favor of the sawn hoop is the portability of the 



306 COOPERAGE 

machines, enabling them to be moved more readily from 
one locality to another at a nominal cost. And, again, 
it has generally been conceded that the sawn hoop is 
really superior to one that has been cut. No doubt there 
is a lot of truth in this assertion, for if the planks are 
not properly boiled, the knife in forcing its way through 
shatters the timber more or less, and this materially 
weakens the hoop. Another advantage in favor of the 
sawn hoop is that it requires less capital to equip a plant 
for sawing hoops and a smaller degree of skill for main- 
tenance and operation. The sawn hoop offers many little 
advantages to make up for the disadvantage of the waste 
from saw kerf. 

The machinery necessary to equip a hoop plant for 
either cut or sawn hoops depends somewhat on what 
system is used. The general plan, however, for cut 
hoops is to have a hoop cutter — that is, a long, heavy 
knife that cuts the hoop from the plank — a jointer or 
lapper, a hoop planer, and a coiler. For sawn hoops 
one generally requires a sawing outfit which consists of 
a machine that contains both a planer and a jointer or 
lapper, a self-feeding rip or gang saw for preparing 
the bars or strips, and a coiler. As to output, it is a 
well-known fact that the cutting machines have the 
largest capacity. The average machine for making sawn 
hoops will turn out about 15,000 hoops a day, while some 
of the cutters will run as high as 40,000 to 60,000 hoops 
per day. In comparing the producing machines with the 
subsidiary machines, including coilers, we find that the 
average coiling machine will coil about as many hoops 
as one hoop-sawing machine will make — that is, about 
15,000 hoops a day. It is hardly fair, probably, to say 
that this is an average. There are some hoop-coiling rec- 
ords in which these figures have been materiallv exceeded, 
some special occasions on which men have coiled as high 



SLACK BARBEL HOOP MANUFACTURE 307 

as 66,000 hoops in one day. Usually, however, it takes 
about three coilers to take care of the output of a plant 
making from 40,000 to 60,000 hoops a day, and the gen- 
eral practice is to have about three hoop coilers, and 
sometimes four, to each hoop cutter. A good hoop- 
cutting machine will cut from 40,000 to 60,000 hoops a 
day, running full capacity. Much, of course, depends 
upon the quality of the timber as well as the skill of the 
operator, and 40,000 hoops is probably a fair day's out- 
put. And three coilers to the hoop cutter would no 
doubt make h well-balanced equipment. The question 
of selection, however, for method or system to manufac- 
ture hoops naturally depends somewhat on local condi- 
tions, and they have to be considered in each case sepa- 
rately. Still, notwithstanding the fact that the odds are 
against the sawn system as a timber economizer, it is, as 
a rule, about the best method for a sawmill man who 
desires to enter into the manufacture of hoops as a side 
line. 

MANTJFACTTJKE OF HOOPS 

Elm has been principally the standard hoop timber, 
but other woods lately have come into the market. Oak, 
ash, birch, and hickory make good hoops and are used 
quite extensively. Some beech and maple have also been 
used with varying results. In the South, pine, gum, cy- 
press, and even magnolia hoops are very often used. 
This class of timber should be worked in the green state, 
otherwise the breakage will be excessively high. In the 
manufacture of hoops, the proper sawing of the plank 
is essential in order to get out the timber to the best 
advantage, and a great waste, which is caused by uneven 
planks, is often noticed. Through carelessness, some 
planks often will vary from V/g to 1% inches instead of 
being sawn true and to proper size, which should be VAq 



308 



COOPERAGE 



inches and kept to within Mo of an inch of the proper 
thickness. A variation of more than this amount is not 
necessary if the saw is properly adjusted and the oper- 
ators are experienced and attend strictly to their duties. 




Fig. 93. Short Log Saw Mill. 



The planks being sawn 1 7 Aq inches thick allows %2 inch 
on each side for planing, which is ample, the finished 
hoop then being 1% inches wide, which is the standard 
width. Some hoop manufacturers cut their own planks, 




Fig. 94. Self-feed Gang Ripsaw. 



while others purchase them already cut to size from the 
sawmills. When the planks are sawn at the hoop mill, 
the short log sawmill, as shown in Fig. 93, is generally 
used. 



SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 309 

THE SAWN PROCESS 

In the manufacture of hoops by the sawn process, the 
plank is not steamed as in cutting. Instead, it is taken 
to a self-feed gang ripsaw (Fig. 94 or 95), where the 
planks are sawn or ripped into hoop bars 1 7 / 1Q x Wig 
inches. Each bar then contains sufficient material for 




Fig. 95. Self-feed Gang Ripsaw. 



two hoops. These bars are then passed through the hoop 
machinery proper, after which the hoops are steamed 
and coiled. On the gauge ripsaws illustrated, saws 16 
inches in diameter should be used and maintained at a 
speed of 3,000 revolutions per minute. After the plank 
has been ripped into hoop bars of the proper dimensions, 



310 



COOPERAGE 



these bars are taken to the machine illustrated in Fig. 96, 
known as ''the Trautman. " This machine makes" two 
complete hoops from each bar fed into it, as it saws the 
bar in two, planes, points and laps each hoop. In opera- 
tion, one end of each bar is first pointed by a revolving 
cutter head at the front end of the machine, and is then 
fed into the feed rolls. These carry it between two cutter 
heads, which plane opposite surfaces of the blank, while 
at the same time a saw, set at the proper angle to give 




Fig. 96. The "Trautman" Sawn-hoop Machine. 



the correct bevel, divides the blank into two hoops. As 
they pass out, each hoop is lapped by an assistant at the 
rear end of the machine. These two operators, generally 
a man and a boy, should obtain the rated capacity of 
15,000 hoops per day. The speed of the countershaft for 
this machine should be 1,000 revolutions per minute. 
This will give the proper speed to the cutters and saws 
on the machine. Saws used should be 10 inches in diam- 
eter, 15 gauge. The hoops are then taken to a boiling vat. 
These tanks are generally made up of 2 x 4-inch stuff, 
nailed or bolted securely together, preferably bolted. 



SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 311 

and are about 7 feet long, 5 feet wide and 3 feet deep. 
The hoops are softened by dropping them into this tank 
of hot water, which is heated by exhaust steam, and then 
coiled. Another excellent sawn-hoop machine is illus- 
trated in Fig. 97, and is known as "the Kettenring." 




Fig. 97. The "Kettenring" Sawn-hoop Machine. 

This machine also makes two hoops from each bar fed 
into it, as it saws the bar in two and planes each hoop 
at the same operation. In practice, the hoop bar is first 
pointed on tl^e hoop bar chuck pointing machine (Fig. 
98), which should be located convenient to the front' end 




Fig. 98. Hoop-bar Chuck Pointing Machine. 



of the Kettenring machine, and then fed by the same 
operator into the hoop machine (Fig. 97), where the hoop 
bar is planed and sawn into two hoops, after which they 
are lapped by an assistant on the machine shown in Fig. 
99, known as the hand-feed hoop-lapping machine, which 



312 



COOPERAGE 



should be placed convenient to the discharge end of the 
hoop-sawing machine (Fig. 97). These two operators, 
generally a man and a boy, should attain the rated ca- 
pacity of 15,000 hoops per day. The speed of the counter- 




Fig. 99. Hand-feed Hoop Lapping Machine. 

shaft on the Kettenring machine should be 1,000 revolu- 
tions per minute. This will give the proper speed to the 
cutter heads and saws on the machine. Saws used should 
be 10 inches diameter, 15 gauge. 



THE CUTTING PROCESS 

In this process, as in manufacturing staves, many of 
the defects in hoops can be directly traced to improper 
steaming or boiling. There has been much discussion 
as to whether steaming or boiling the plank is the more 
advantageous. Either process, it has been found, if 
properly carried out, will bring good results, but the most 
essential feature is to have the plank thoroughly cooked 
and the hoop-cutting knife sharp; otherwise the timber 
will be more or less shattered and, of course, will not 
work or coil with as low a percentage of breakage. The 
disadvantages of steaming the plank are several. For 
instance, it costs much more to erect and maintain an 



SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 313 

efficient and effective steam-box than it does to construct 
an ordinary boiling vat, where no pressures are to be 
maintained. Also, where steam-boxes are used it requires 
a high and almost uniform steam pressure, with conse- 
quent increased firing of the boiler ; and it has also been 
found that a steamed plank cools much quicker when ex- 
posed to the atmosphere, and that when once cooled off 
it gets very hard and becomes almost impossible to work 
with any degree of success. Also the labor incident to 
effective steaming of planks is much greater than that of 
boiling. Therefore, considering the above disadvantages, 
and they will at least bear investigation, the boiling 
of planks appears to be the more efficient, economical, 
and practical method of treating the timber before cut- 
ting into hoops. 

THE BOILING VAT 

The boiling vat is as important to the hoop mill as 
the steam-box is to a stave mill. It should be given its 
proper share of care and attention, and should be thor- 
oughly cleaned at regular intervals. The dimensions of 
the vat depend mainly on the capacity of the mill, but 
a plant with a contemplated capacity of from 40,000 to 
50,000 hoops per day of ten hours should provide a cook- 
ing vat not less than 50 feet long, 8 feet wide and 6 feet 
deep. This tank or vat may be constructed of concrete 
or pine. Where timbers are used, a good construction 
can be made by using 2 x 4-inch stuff for the sides and 
ends, planed on the flat or larger side and nailed or bolted 
firmly one on top of the other. The floor should be of 
2-inch stuff, running lengthwise of the vat, with tongue 
and grooved flooring running crosswise, and held in place 
with screws. This construction, if properly carried out, 
will make an excellent cooking. or boiling vat. 

Where boiling vats are constructed of concrete, care 



314 COOPERAGE 

should be taken that they are built on firm foundations ; 
otherwise the side walls will crack from the uneven set- 
tling of the walls, and this will cause leaks, making a 
very unsatisfactory and troublesome vat. A good foun- 
dation may be made, where the ground is fairly firm, by 
digging clown below the surface for about 2 or 3 feet 
and putting in a layer of crushed stone about 18 inches 
deep; then on top of this pour the concrete. The side 
walls should be tapered, with the thickest part at the base, 
making the base about half as thick again as the top, 
and at intervals throughout the construction there should 
be reinforcements, in the shape of rods or band iron, in 
order to hold the mass firmly together and lessen the 
liability of cracks. It has also been found necessary to 
put an extra wooden bottom in concrete vats, as by con- 
tinually dropping the plank into them, if care is not 
exercised, they will strike the bottom and eventually pro- 
duce large holes or cracks that will in time cause leaks. 
This can be overcome by placing anchor bolts in the 
bottom at regular intervals, which can be used for fast- 
ening down a layer of 3-inch planks. This method of 
protecting the bottom is also necessary on top of the 
side walls, so that the concrete work will not be broken 
or worn away by the continual sliding or scraping of the 
planks while the operator is placing them in or taking 
same from the vat. These planks can then be renewed 
as occasion requires, and the boiling vat kept in good 
condition. The mixture for this construction may be the 
same as that given for concrete steam-boxes for stave 
bolts in Section VIII. With boiling vats carefully con- 
structed on this plan they should give excellent satis- 
faction and last for a considerable period, with little or 
no expense for repairs. 

Opinions differ as to whether the best results are ob-. 
tained by cooking the plank standing edgewise or plac- 



SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 315 

ing in tank on the flat side. The objections to boiling 
hoop plank flat are, that in order to secure good results 
the plank must be kept apart or separated. This necessi- 
tates the use of cull hoops or strips between the plank, 
which eventually fall to the bottom of the vat, causing 
difficulty in removing the plank by getting tangled with 
the hook, and makes frequent cleaning and emptying of 
the tank an absolute necessity. Also, it has been found 
that very frequently additional labor is required, from 
the fact that it is more difficult to remove the plank from 
the vat when laid flat. Considering the above facts, some 
of the largest hoop mills have adopted the method of 
boiling the plank edgewise, and for this purpose they 
put a 4 x 4 or 4 x 6-inch timber in the centre on the bot- 
tom of the tank the full length, and suspend another 
about 12 inches above the top of the tank, directly over 
and in line with the one on the bottom. In these timbers 
they bore holes from 2 to 2% inches apart, and put in 
%-inch round iron rods or 1-inch pipe, giving the appear- 
ance of an iron fence through the centre, lengthwise of 
the tank. The planks are then placed in these spaces on 
edge, one on top of the other. By this method the boiling 
hot water has free access to the planks on all sides, which 
are thoroughly cooked in less time than if lain flat, and are 
easily removed from the tank by means of a hook. In boil- 
ing hoop planks, as in steaming stave bolts, care should be 
exercised that they are not subjected to too much boil- 
ing. All that is required is "merely" to soften them up, 
or, in other words, to produce the highest possible degree 
of sponginess, without loosening the fibres of the wood 
from each other to cause woolly or fuzzy cutting. The 
secret in turning out a good hoop is in the preparation 
of the stock, and a part of the secret of preparation is 
letting it soak thoroughly, putting in more time prepar- 
ing it than is the practice in most places, not using 



316 



COOPERAGE 



quite so much heat. It is really doubtful if there is need 
to raise the water above the boiling point to properly 
prepare planks for cutting, as when we go above the boil- 
ing point there is a remarkably strong tendency on the 
part of the heat, and the boiling incident thereto, to dis- 
integrate the wood. If the stock is in excellent condi- 
tion for cutting, that is, duly softened without being 
rendered woolly and difficult to cut, then half the battle 
is won, and not only will the stock cut much easier and 
faster, but it will be much easier to keep the knife in 
shape. 

The condition of the plank when entering the mill 
should be considered, as planks cut from green or newly 




Fig. 100. The Hoop Cutter. 

felled trees require less boiling than those cut from logs 
which have lain on the yard or in the woods for a consid- 
erable period. Hoops vary in quality more than any 
other stock manufactured, and this can be traced mostly 
to improper softening of the wood fibres before cutting. 



THE HOOP CUTTER 



The planks after having been prepared properly by 
boiling are then taken while hot to the hoop cutters, as 



SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 317 

shown in Figs. 100 and 101, where they are cut into hoops. 
Care should be taken that the stock is cut so that the 
hoops will go to the planers % 2 inch full, heavier than the 
specifications call for when finished, on both the thick 
and thin edges, so that the hoops will leave the planers 
about y 6 4 inch scant, or plump, .% 6 and 5 / 16 inch. This 
allowance should be made for the shrinkage of the tim- 
ber while it is being seasoned in the yard. Quite a num- 
ber of hoops are placed on the market that are not fin- 
ished properly. Some manufacturers evidently do not 
place much importance on the fact that a hoop should be 
well finished. If enough timber is fed into the planer 




Fig. 101. The Hoop Cuttek. 



so that the cutters can do their work well there should 
be no difficulty in finishing up # the hoops properly and 
in a workmanlike manner, providing, of course, that the 
machine is kept in good repair, the knives on the Cutter- 
heads sharp and well balanced, and the bearings prop- 
erly adjusted. These hoop-cutting machines should be 
run at a speed of 200 revolutions per minute on the tight 
and loose pulleys, and if maintained at this speed, with 
the knife properly cared for, the tilting mechanism and 
other working parts carefully looked after, should turn 
out about 70,000 perfectly cut and bevelled hoops in a 
day's work. 



318 



COOPERAGE 



THE HOOP PLANER 

The illustration (Fig. 102) represents the automatic 
triple hoop planer, which is considered one of the best 
on the market for the purpose of planing wood hoops. 
When properly cared for this machine is accurate and 
rapid, it being so arranged as to plane three hoops at 
one time, and should perform this work at the rate of 
35,000 hoops per day of ten hours. .The. proper planing 
and finishing of a hoop determines its general appear- 
ance and often its ultimate value, and is a part of hoop 
manufacture f requently given too little attention. In hoops 




Fig. 102. The Automatic Triple Hoop Planer. 



that are well finished or planed, the breakage will be con- 
siderably less, both at the hoop coiler's and later in the 
cooper shop when they are finally used. When the cutter- 
head spindles are allowed to jump or rattle, it gives the 
finished hoop a wavy appearance, and in some instances, 
where the wood is slightly cross-grained, this jumping of 
the cutter-head spindle has a tendency to dig into the wood 
or break it out at that point, and it will be found to weaken 
considerably the hoop, and that a great many will break at 
the coiler's or afterwards in the coil, and is caused by this 
inattention of the spindle bearings. In babbitting these 



SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 319 

bearings it is always preferable to "line" them with 
several pieces of thin cardboard, instead of using one or 
two pieces of thick leather belting, as is generally the 
custom. Then, if the bearings need adjusting, all that 
is necessary is to take out one of these thin pieces from 
each side of the cap and tighten it down again. If this 
is done properly, the bearings can be run for a consid- 
erable period before rebabbitting. The bits used should 
be 1 7 /iq inches, and should always be kept sharp and in run- 
ning balance. And if the stock fed into it is cut so that the 
planer can perform its work properly, no difficulty should 
be experienced in turning out a well-finished hoop, and 
the breakage would be considerably lessened. It has 




Fig. 103. The Automatic Hoop-pointing and Lapping Machine. 

been proven that at least forty per cent, of the breakage 
of hoops at the coiler's is caused by faulty workmanship 
at the planer. 

THE HOOP-POINTING AND LAPPING MACHINE 

After the hoops have been cut properly and planed, 
they are then passed through the machine, as illustrated 
in Fig. 103. This engraving represents an automatic 
hoop-pointing and lapping machine, which is considered 
one of the best machines for this purpose, and is used 
by the large hoop manufacturers for equalizing, point- 
ing, and lapping hoops, all these operations being done 
at one time, and at the rate of 60,000 hoops per day of 
ten hours. In operation, the hoops are placed upon the 



320 



COOPERAGE 



chain feed of the machine, which automatically feeds 
them forward to the equalizing and pointing knives, 
where they stop just long enough for the cutters to ac- 




Fig. 104. "The Ward" Hocp-coiling Machine. 



complish their work, when they again move forward to 
the lapping cutters, which complete the work, and the 
finished hoop is discharged at the rear side of the ma- 
chine. The speed of this machine should be 700 revolu- 
tions per minute on the tight and loose pulleys, which 



SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 321 

are 12 inches in diameter. There are no saws on this 
machine, and the fact that it works automatically insures 
that each and every hoop will be alike. A great many 
hoops are often put into the coils which are defective on 
account of not having a properly thinned lap, or in some 
cases with no semblance of a lap at all. The proper lap- 
ping of a hoop is a very essential feature, and care should 
be exercised at all times that this point is not neglected, 
as when the lap is not made properly or thinned down 
sufficiently, the hoop with the defective lap when put into 




Pig. 105. "The Defiance" Hoop-coiling Machine. 



the coil will often cause the hoop next to it to be weak- 
ened and break, on account of the "dent" or short crook 
put into it by coming in contact with this blunt end. Even 
though damage on this account is not common, coopers 
prefer a hoop that is properly lapped, and very often 
rejections are made by the consumer on this particular 
point. 

THE HOOP-COILING MACHINE 

The hoop-coiling machine illustrated in Fig. 104 is 
known as "the Ward," and in the hands of a skilful oper- 



322 COOPERAGE 

ator should turn out from 16,000 to 20,000 hoops per day, 
according to the skill of the operator. The speed of the 
driven pulley on this machine should be 330 revolutions 
per minute. Another excellent hoop-coiling machine is 
illustrated in Fig. 105, and is known as "the Defiance.' 1 
Its rated capacity is also from 16,000*to 20,000 hoops per 
day. The coiling of the hoop, after having been manu- 
factured, is more of an important feature of hoop-mak- 
ing than is generally accredited to it, as a hoop well manu- 
factured but improperly coiled easily will lose a large 
percentage of its quality. It is often the practice of the 
coilers to use a stick or an iron bar, placing it across 
the boiling vat, and then take out a large quantity of 
hoops at one time, allowing them to rest on this support 
while being coiled. This method of working is not alto- 
gether a bad one, provided, of course, that a few hoops 
are taken out of the vat at one time ; but where a large 
amount is taken out, a great many of the hoops get cold 
or cool off considerably before the operator succeeds in 
coiling them, and, therefore, materially increases the per- 
centage of breakage in the coils. This breakage may not 
altogether appear while the hoops are being coiled, but 

• 

will eventually materialize later on, when the coils are 
opened. Hoops should always be placed in the coils while 
they are hot; otherwise, if coiled cold, the fibres of the 
wood are strained or broken entirely, and hoops coiled in 
this condition are also more liable to mould and rot than 
when put into the coils when hot. Broken or unsound 
hoops in the coils are the primary causes of a great many 
rejections or claims for reductions by the cooper. Care 
must be taken also with the inspection. Many hoop man- 
ufacturers have boys to do this work, and it is very often 
done in a very careless manner. This position is really 
an important one, and should not be intrusted to an in- 
competent workman. The smaller sizes, as well as the 



SLACK BARREL HOOP MANUFACTURE 323 

larger ones, should be inspected carefully, and if every 
hoop that shows a damaging defect is thrown out enough 
will remain that cannot he seen or that will develop in 
seasoning to amply cover the two or three per cent, 
allowed for breakage and loss. When the mill is run- 
ning on a particularly bad lot of logs, or logs that have 
lain too long on the yard before working, and the break- 
age is found to be excessive, even for only a short time, 
assistance should be given the regular coiler, or the hoops 
piled to one side, to be worked over at odd times. It is 
in such instances as this that particularly bad hoops suc- 
ceed in getting into the coils, and eventually to the con- 
sumer, that causes considerable trouble, and the shipper 
eventually gets the reputation for poor quality that will 
remain with him for some time. Also, the cooper becomes 
suspicious of his stock and subjects it to a very rigid and 
careful examination or inspection. On the other hand, if 
a more careful inspection is made at the mill, more hoops 
will probably be thrown out, but the shipper gains a repu- 
tation for good quality of stock, can demand and will se- 
cure better prices for his product, and a great many de- 
fects will at times pass unnoticed by the cooper. 

PILING ON YAED 

Hoops to be properly piled on the yard should be placed 
on platforms not less than one foot above the ground 
and the grass and weeds kept close cut, in order that they 
will not obstruct or retard the proper circulation of air 
through and around the several piles. When properly 
seasoned they should be taken in and placed under cover 
or shipped, and not allowed to remain exposed to the 
rains and sun until they become over-seasoned, often be- 
coming brash as well as unduly discolored. This piling 
of hoops to the weather is fully as important as that of 



324 COOPERAGE 

staves, and should be treated with the same care and 
attention. 

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND GRADES 

The standard specifications and grades, as acted upon 
and adopted by the National Slack Cooperage Manufac- 
turers' Association as regards the proper grading of 
slack barrel hoops, follows: 

Standard dimensions of coiled elm hoops from 5 feet 
6 inches to 6 feet 9 inches in length shall be made so as 
to measure when finished and seasoned not less than 5 Aq 
inch in thickness on the top or thick edge, and %e inch 
in thickness on the bottom or thin edge, and not less than 
1% inches in width. 

Hoops less than 5 feet 6 inches in length may be made 
same width and thickness as 'longer hoops, unless other- 
wise agreed upon by buyer and seller. 

Dimensions of standard keg hoops, 5 feet and shorter, 
to be, when finished and seasoned, not less than % inch 
in thickness on the top or thick edge, and % inch in thick- 
ness on the bottom or thin edge, and not less than 1% 
inches in width. 

No. 1 hoops shall be of good, sound timber, up to the 
specifications, well finished, and free from breakage and 
other defective hoops that make them unfit for use on a 
barrel, to be dry or well seasoned when shipped. 

HEAD LINERS 

The demand for head liners of various sizes, lengths, 
and shapes, such as are used to secure the heads in slack 
barrels, has increased in the past few years to such an 
extent that special machinery with large capacity has 
been made to produce them. The machine shown in Fig. 



SLACK BAEEEL HOOP MANUFACTURE* 325 

106 has been constructed especially for this branch of the 
industry, and is considered the most complete machine 
for the purpose. It is simple in construction, automatic 
in its operation, and can be operated by a boy. It pro- 
duces three head liners crimped and complete at a time, 
having a capacity of 50,000 liners per day. The making 
of head liners is a good side line for a hoop or stave mill, 




Fig. 106. The Head-liner Machine. 



as it considerably reduces the waste problem, as the ma- 
terial from which liners can be made consists of defective 
and undersized hoops, staves, slabs, etc., and the sur- 
plus which collects about the mill or factory and is of no 
value other than for purposes of this character. It is 
equally well adapted for making barrel hoops, hoops and 
handles for fruit and other baskets, and trunk slats, by 
simply using suitable knives and removing the crimping 
attachment. Speed of countershaft on machine 1,180 
revolutions per minute. 



SECTION XI 



MODERN 
SHOP MANAGEMENT 



MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 

In this article I propose to deal more particularly with 
the commercial or financial aspect of the management 
of mill or factory, as distinct from the practical side of 
the manufacture, although in a sense the one is as prac- 
tical a subject as the other. I shall therefore aim to 
bring forth a few of the leading principles of successful 
management as practised by the modern factory man- 
ager or superintendent. This is undoubtedly an era of 
keen and sharp competition, and in order to keep up with 
the fast-moving procession we must keep in close touch 
with all the details of the business, lest there be a small 
leakage somewhere that eventually will grow to harmful 
magnitude. Many a concern to-day is struggling under 
a load imposed upon it by bad and inefficient system, both 
of management and of details of factory and office work. 
Some will not awaken to a full realization of the situa- 
tion until some finely organized competitor drives them 
to the point where an investigation of "what is wrong" 
is absolutely necessary. Then they will become enlight- 
ened of the fact that, instead of profits, the concern has 
been steadily on the down grade through its dilatory 
and unprogressive methods, and that it will take strenu- 
ous efforts on the part of every one concerned to place 
it on a proper basis again. 

Modern commercialism not only demands the finest 
and best machinery, the most capable and skilful men, 
working at the highest possible pitch, but also renders 
it imperative that all component parts be knit together 
by modern methods of organization and that product, 
processes, departments, and workmen be checked up 
and their efficiency gauged by the most thorough meth- 



330 COOPERAGE 

ods of accounting and system. The one thing, un- 
doubtedly, that contributes more to a mill turning out 
an inferior quality of stock than any other is lack of 
properly trained and skilled labor. There is hardly a 
position about a mill where the efficiency might not be 
improved through careful and proper training. It 
would almost seem as though some of the manufac- 
turers thought any unskilled and uneducated tramp was 
competent to perform the duties attached to any of the 
several positions in and about a stave, heading, or hoop 
mill; but experience has proven that help of this class 
is a detriment to the mill. The workman who takes pride 
in his knowledge and experience in the trade, and who 
knows much more than is required of him to perform 
properly the duties set before him, is the help that per- 
forms the task with the greatest ease and skill. Investi- 
gation will prove that the manufacturer who has the 
reputation of turning out the best quality of stock to-day, 
in the absence of an industrial or training school, is using 
the old apprentice system modernized to suit his require- 
ments and to meet the present industrial and domestic 
conditions in training the help properly to perform the 
various duties about the plant. The help must be thor- 
oughly instructed in the operation and care of the various 
machines and be well versed in the requirements of the 
user of the class of stock he is manufacturing, and also 
be familiar with the standard specifications and grades 
of this article. 

How often has it occurred that a firm, prosperous 
in the early days of its existence, failed utterly after 
it had grown to such size as to make it impossible 
for the heads to retain that "personal touch" with 
its details which was exercised previously. The fac- 
tory superintendent or manager of to-day must retain 
that vital touch with the internal working of his organi- 



MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 331 

zation in this era of close competition, small profits, 
and intense activity of production; and in order to do 
this, he must necessarily be a practical man, knowing 
minutely all the smallest details of the business, in order 
to distinguish the inefficient portions from the strong 
parts, and able to assign unerringly the cause for such 
inefficiency, in order that he may throw all of his power, 
knowledge, and years of experience into the strengthen- 
ing of such weak points. He must be able to remove 
immediately any increase in expenses or deterioration 
in working efficiency in any of the different departments 
of the business. He must seek to avoid the employment 
of unnecessary non-productive labor, and unless he can 
see very clearly into the future, he must be very careful 
about employing or engaging straight-time help, because 
whenever production becomes dormant the expenses 
necessarily must be cut to a minimum. He must satisfy 
himself that the costs are calculated upon a correct basis, 
that they are compiled in such a manner as to show in 
detail any unnecessary increases in operating expenses, 
as well as to render it possible to make intelligent exam- 
inations and comparisons, with a view to the effecting of 
economies. This cannot be accomplished unless a com- 
plete and accurate set of records are judicially and sys- 
tematically kept and rigidly adhered to. It will greatly 
aid the always busy and usually overworked man "at 
the helm" to a more comprehensive and accurate survey 
of the entire workings of the plant and to the location of 
the responsibility for good and bad results. 

In an established factory the manager may have many 
difficulties to contend with if the works have not been 
carefully planned in view of all circumstances, and the 
most he can do in such cases is to minimize the consequent 
disadvantages by judicial internal economies and by 
structural modifications when possible. The ideal factory 



332 COOPERAGE 

is that in which there is no unnecessary handling of raw 
material and in which everything when received at the 
works is stored so as to be readily available for nse when 
needed. The buildings should be provided with all the 
daylight available, and should be so arranged that the 
respective foremen can readily see all that is going on, 
as when they have to supervise a number of workmen 
widely separated much time is lost and the supervision is 
less effective than when the foreman is, so to speak, on 
the spot. 

In a great many cooperage concerns, and especially so 
amongst the smaller mills, the foreman is, so to speak, 
the whole show. He is expected to fill all the important 
positions in and about the plant, keep the machinery up, 
and in some cases, after working long hours, devote his 
spare time to the keeping of the accounts. You can rest 
assured that in such cases they are few and those of a 
very brief nature. I have often marvelled at the tenacity 
of such concerns in holding on to business life, consider- 
ing the meagre accounts and records kept and the lament- 
able lack of detailed information of costs. Considera- 
tion must be given to the question of securing the full 
efficiency of the foreman, usually high priced; it is cer- 
tain that he is one of the most important links in the 
chain. As he is, so will his workmen be. As the work- 
men are, so will the quality and cost of the product be. 
And on the quality, quantity, and cost of the product 
hangs the success of the business. Do not load him up 
with detail work. That is one of the gravest errors of 
many if not most of the concerns to-day. His chief aim 
should be to improve the quality, increase the quantity, 
lower the cost, if possible, and investigate and devise 
improved methods of manufacture, machinery, etc. And 
if he is an exceptionally good and conscientious man, he 
should be permitted to make occasional visits to estab- 



MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 333 

lishments in other and nearby towns or cities, in order 
that he may not "grow stale" from continnons and unin- 
terrupted association with the same surroundings. It 
would be an encouragement to him and would assist ma- 
terially toward brightening up his ideas. It is also an 
employer's duty to look after the comfort and improve- 
ment of his workmen, as far as is possible, and it is im- 
perative that the risk of accident be minimized by all 
possible precautions for the protection of life and limb; 
but having done all this, it will also be advisable to in- 
sure against the monetary risk of accidents. It will be 
obvious that where an employer has the interest of his 
workmen at heart, and the relationship between them is 
satisfactory, production will be increased greatly and 
waste relatively minimized, as a result of voluntary effort 
on the part of the workmen. 

Frequently waste arises through thoughtlessness or of 
not being instructed properly. This is especially notice- 
able in the operations of jointing staves and heading and 
in the matching up of heading pieces. Too great impor- 
tance cannot be attached to the co-operation of employees 
in regard to the different operations of manufacture. 
Many intelligent workmen could suggest improvements, 
but because of lack of encouragement they feel it no busi- 
ness of theirs to do so. Such a state of affairs operates 
against the interests, and the sooner it is altered the 
better will it be for all concerned. For inventive genius 
should be at all times encouraged and suitably recog- 
nized, for if it is not, the employer may lose not only 
the benefit of his workmen's suggestions, but may find 
that their ideas have been carried to his competitors, 
with the result that often valuable suggestions, ideas, or 
inventions are developed and monopolized by others. 

To remedy this, an employer should have frequent con- 
sultations with his men, and especially with his foreman. 



334 COOPERAGE 

He should be taken into his confidence. A great many 
costly mistakes could be avoided by the simple matter of 
organization, whereby an employer would derive the ben- 
efit of the experience of others. In the first place, meet- 
ings or consultations should be held regularly, and the 
foreman and the men of importance in v and around the 
plant should be assembled together. Here should be dis- 
cussed openly and freely the best methods of manufac- 
ture, the mistakes that are commonly made, and sugges- 
tions made for improvements, both in the machinery and 
the work in general. Criticism should be sought for and 
encouraged. These men should be brought into sympathy 
with the aims and purposes of the business, and, if neces- 
sary, instructed and trained in the best methods of hand- 
ling men for the purpose of increasing their working ef- 
ficiency, increasing their interest in their work, and using 
the most effective methods of securing the best general 
results for both the workmen and the company. 

A firm is adopting a very short-sighted business policy 
when it refuses to acknowledge thef actthat decisions based 
upon free discussion and deliberation with men of long 
experience, no matter how humble, are wiser, stronger, 
and much more effective than those of any one man. 

It is also an advantage to retain workmen in as regular 
employment as possible. Otherwise the services of good, 
skilled workmen may be permanently lost to the firm. As 
a matter of course, skilled workmen should be the last to 
be laid off when there is a business lull. Old employees 
should always be encouraged, having generally a 
greater interest in their employer's business than new 
hands. At the same time, the infusion of new blood into 
the ranks at various times is desirable, as one cannot 
afford in these days of keen competition and progressive 
industrial methods to be too conservative of old ideas 
which may be capable of improvement. Inefficient work- 



MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 335 

men, like poor tools, are dear at any price; and it is 
therefore essential that only capable and skilled workers 
be employed, and that they receive good wages for such 
services. 

Regularity and punctuality should also be insisted 
upon, for it is a source of loss to operate a factory 
where a number of workmen are constantly absent or 
systematically late in arriving at their work. In intro- 
ducing a system of good wages for their workmen, the 
management should have many aims in view. The most 
important of these are as follows: The possibility of 
shop economies and cheaper production; the forcing of 
the factory to its maximum capacity quickly ; the attrac- 
tion of expert and more skilful workmen and their en- 
couragement to use their skill and wits to the utmost; 
the singling out of the slovenly, slow workers for either 
development or discharge; the cultivation of a feeling 
on the part of the men that the company is firm in its 
determination to be just and fair and that its insistence 
on a high rate of production is justified by the rate 
of wages paid. To this feeling must be added the knowl- 
edge that the company will insist upon a full day's work. 

To accomplish these aims, the one important factor — 
"the man at the machine, " with his human prejudices and 
his capabilities — must be carefully considered. It is, how- 
ever, surprising to note how little attention is usually 
paid to this. Policies and systems vitally affecting the 
workman's welfare are put into force with a total dis- 
regard both to his willingness and his ability to improve 
himself and his product under proper conditions and his 
power to increase costs and cause other even more seri- 
ous troubles in the shop when the conditions are not as 
they should be. These facts should not be lightly consid- 
ered. It is difficult to overestimate the value of having 
vour mill or factory full of skilled, alert, and contented 



336 COOPERAGE 

workmen, who will give you a maximum of production 
with a minimum of expense. The advantage is not alone 
in the fact that costs of production are lower, but the feel- 
ings of mutual confidence and contentment in this day 
of labor difficulties are in themselves of great value to 
both employer and employee. The men's suggestions, 
given as a consequence of this feeling, and their endeavor 
to better themselves and their product, will not only lead 
to many improvements, but, reacting on them, will make 
them stronger men and better workmen. 

The mechanical and general arrangement of a slack 
stock mill is such that one operator or employee must de- 
pend upon another for the proper performance of his du- 
ties. The most effective practice would suggest that one 
employee be not allowed to avoid the responsibility of his 
faults by charging them to other employees, and where 
the workmen are charging others with their own faults or 
"tattling" on each other there is faulty management in- 
dicated. 

While in all commercial enterprises the cost of pro- 
duction should be minimized by all legitimate means 
consistent with the maintenance of quality, it is no less 
important and necessary that a complete system of cost- 
keeping be adopted. Many firms are satisfied with more 
or less approximate cost, because at the end of the year 
they find that there is a fair margin of profit over all; 
but without accurate costs they cannot tell whether on 
some of their product they are not losing money. The 
time books should be analyzed carefully, in order to ob- 
tain accurate costs ; and if the weekly or bi-weekly wage 
totals are compared in relation to output, it will facili- 
tate the detection of error or mismanagement. The 
question of working expenses has a most important bear- 
ing on the profits, for as the expenses of conducting a 
business are high or low, so will the earnings be affected. 



MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 337 

For a minimum output, certain charges, such as rent, 
taxes, insurance, management, supervision, salaries of 
clerks, etc., are necessarily incurred each year, and will 
vary but little with any output between that minimum 
and a certain maximum. For example, say that the an- 
nual sales amount to $250,000 and the working expenses 
to $30,000. It is conceivable that if such sales were in- 
creased to, say, $300,000, the expenses might not greatly 
exceed the above figure, or, at all events, would not in- 
crease in proportion, simply because the same estab- 
lishment is equal to the increased trade. Or, in other 
words, the resources of the factory are not in the first 
instance fully employed. If the output be only three- 
fourths of the factory's capacity, it is clear that these 
three-fourths are bearing, say, one-fourth more of the 
establishment expenses than might otherwise be charge- 
able, and that being so, it is equally clear that if the 
output be increased to the full capacity the profits 
will increase, even though the additional business be 
less remunerative, provided that the selling price is 
not bare cost, but carries with it a margin for working 
expenses. 

But before advocating any policy that might suggest 
itself on arriving at this conclusion, it is first assumed 
that the output has been and under ordinary conditions 
is likely to remain stationary. Contracts on a large scale 
are sometimes taken at prices which would not pay on 
smaller business, but which, as bringing additional grist 
to the mill, keep the factory fully employed and earn 
a profit however small. The fact that the manufacturer 
has generally no monopoly reminds us that he runs the 
risk when selling cheaply to large buyers of having to 
reduce his prices to smaller consumers. He has, how- 
ever, in that event the advantage of a factory fully em- 
ployed, enabling him to compete successfully with others, 



338 COOPERAGE 

should they compel him to reduce his prices generally. 
Even if he does not accept large contracts at low prices, 
but leaves it to other manufacturers, he will still run the 
risk of competition without having the advantage re- 
ferred to. In other words, competition on the part of 
a few affects the many by lowering prices, and it is there- 
fore advisable to be early in the field and to take the 
advantages offered by a good going concern to minimize 
the rate of working expenses. The percentage of work- 
ing expenses may also be minimized by an established 
factory which is only partially employed by branching 
out into another line of business more or less allied to 
its own and for which it may be adapted. 

While the foregoing remarks indicate the possibility 
of increasing the output without a proportionate in- 
crease in the working . expenses, it is often possible to 
reduce the actual working expenses without affecting 
the efficiency of the production. Too often working ex- 
penses are allowed to eat into the profits of a business 
without a due appreciation of the fact. It is therefore 
very desirable to scrutinize all expenditure under this 
head, for which purpose an analysis of the periodical 
accounts should be made. Each item of expense can 
be worked out as a percentage on the sales, or some 
other convenient basis, and compared with previous 
years' figures. If the total of sales is taken as the 
basis, allowance may have to be made for fluctuations 
in selling price, and for this reason some fixed unit 
is to be preferred for comparison. The amount of 
capital employed in any business should not exceed 
the safe minimum necessary for the efficient and econ- 
omical working of the business, as a superfluous capital 
can only entail loss of interest, if not more serious con- 
sequences. While an inflated capital is an evil to be 
avoided, it will be evident that insufficient capital is also 



• MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 339 

a source of danger and loss. The amount of liquid cap- 
ital necessary will depend upon (among other things) 
the turnover and output and the facilities for obtaining 
the raw material on reasonable credit. When labor, re- 
quiring, as it does, ready money for wages, forms a con- 
siderable proportion of the manufactured article, the 
liquid capital required will be necessarily high, especially 
if the output be large ; and as that output increases, fur- 
ther capital will be required to pay additional wages and 
to provide larger stocks to keep pace with the increased 
demand. 

Fixed capital, consisting of buildings, machinery, 
plant, etc., being subject to depreciation, should be writ- 
ten down periodically, and there should be no division 
of profits without first making a safe provision for this 
important item in regard to all wasting assets. All re- 
pairs and maintenance should be scrupulously charged 
to revenue or against reserves previously created for 
that purpose. The rate of depreciation will necessarily 
vary according to circumstances in different and even 
in similar businesses, and as deductions for depreciation 
are more or less estimates, it is wiser to err on the safe 
side than to make an insufficient provision. The prob- 
able lifetime of each item of capital which is subject to 
deterioration is generally the basis of depreciation, al- 
though this is not always a safe one, even with former 
experience as a guide. This is especially true in the 
case of machinery. 

There are many firms to-day using machinery of 
antiquated type, the output capacity of which is only 
a fraction of that of the more up-to-date machines; 
but because the normal lifetime of their plant has 
not been reached they will not discard it, oblivious or 
indifferent to the fact that their policy is "penny wise 
and pound foolish." They therefore continue to deduct, 



340 COOPERAGE 

say, 5 or 10 per cent, per annum, but would find it 
infinitely more profitable to write 100 per cent, from the 
book value, less its scrap value, if it cannot otherwise be 
disposed of, and to install the more modern machine. I 
am a strong believer in scrapping old machinery when 
new and improved types appear on the market. Of 
course, consideration must be given to the interest on the 
cost of the old and new machines, and the amount gained 
in economy by the increased output or the better quality 
of manufacture. Machines should be forced as much as 
possible and worn out quickly. The depreciation will be 
high, but the product will be cheaper, profits larger, and 
the sooner the old machines will make way for the new 
and improved ones that will give increased output and 
better results at the same expense for time and labor. 
Many successful concerns, however, appreciate this fact, 
and will throw machinery on the scrap heap or sell it 
long before its natural life has expired simply because 
of its inefficiency as compared with later inventions. 

In order to preserve the capital intact, buildings, ma- 
chinery, plant, and stocks must of course be fully insured 
against the risk of fire. In the case of factories having a 
number of separate compartments or buildings, between 
which stocks are constantly passing to and fro, it is an ex- 
pensive matter to insure the stock in each building for 
separate sums, because it is always desirable to have a 
margin on each for any possible increase that may arise 
during the year, especially as the inventory values form- 
ing the basis of insurance may not fully represent the 
value of stock at the busiest period of the year. These 
margins would amount in the aggregate to considerably 
more than would be sufficient as a margin if the whole 
stock was insured in one sum. To obviate this, however, 
the stock throughout the works can be insured for one 
sum, subject to the "average clause," which will in no 



MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 341 

event adversely affect the insured so long as the total 
stock is fully covered. Needless to say, fire insurance 
should be supplemented by the employment of night and 
day watchmen, and it is also desirable to have sufficient 
fire-fighting appliances throughout the works and to train 
a number of employees in their use. 

In the factory office, even more than in the shop, is 
the question of discipline as regards time a difficult 
one. In the latter men can be, and usually are, held 
pretty closely to their hours by a system of checking 
out for a part of the day and a consequent loss of 
pay. In the office such a plan is impossible, but, 
nevertheless, discipline and punctuality are quite as 
necessary as in the shop. In office work there always 
must be a certain amount of give and take, and, fairly 
treated, the average clerk will be disposed to act fairly. 
As in the shop so in the office, except under exceptional 
circumstances, any advantage gained by working over- 
time is more apparent than real. When it is necessary, 
however, clerks will usually be ready and willing to 
put in the extra time, provided they know that the 
management see and realize that it is an extra effort 
that is being called for. Where clerical work is not kept 
up to date, nine times out of ten it is the fault of those 
in charge, not of the clerks ; and in the majority of cases 
the cause is neglect of thought and care in distributing 
the work and planning the details. 

As a general rule, it may be said that anything that 
tends to make a workman or a clerk more interested in 
his work, more comfortable in his surroundings, or more 
in harmony with his fellows tends to lessen the cost of the 
workman's product or of the results obtained by the 
clerk's labor ; in other words, to reduce the cost of produc- 
tion. Even in such a small matter as the location of the 
desks of the various employees, convenience should be 



342 COOPERAGE 

studied, and as a result time saved. These and similar 
matters, admittedly small in themselves, may collectively 
affect the question of time and therefore of cost of pro- 
duction to a greater extent than will readily be believed. 

In all industries plans of future courses of action are 
very essential to any large degree of success. Of course, 
a slipshod way of maintaining the interests of nearly any 
business is in vogue in many cases, but the general unsat- 
isfactory results of such maintenance is well known. A 
large percentage of plans undoubtedly prove to be flat 
failures when acted upon, but, nevertheless, a certain 
amount of theoretical foresight is necessary to all prac- 
tical enterprises, even though they may not always "work 
out" entirely up to expectations. The chief foundation 
upon which the majority of plans and future projects rests 
is known by the name of "system." In a commercial 
sense the meaning of the word combines the results of 
experience and the consequent education received, with 
the most advantageous method of pursuing business from 
a profitable standpoint. It is nothing more than a very 
simple type of machine; however, each cog in the make- 
up must be kept thoroughly oiled in order to obtain a 
maximum amount of power. "System" has several 
meanings attributed to it when poor judgment is used. 
An insufficient quantity is generally designated as "hap- 
hazard dealing," while too much is commonly called 
"red tape"; both definitions going to prove the fact 
that common sense must determine the necessary amount 
to be applied. 

Especially in cooperage manufacture, systematic and 
regular methods must be observed. The size of the 
plant required and the production handled naturally 
entails a careful survey and consideration of the best 
application to be employed. Consequently, that appli- 
cation is reached only through actual experience in the 



MODERN SHOP MANAGEMENT 343 

trade, circumstances and location of business having a 
good deal of bearing on the subject. Of one thing there 
is no question — the general importance of regular, con- 
cise, and brief reports. It is as much a necessity to have 
a detailed, comprehensive statement of what is taking 
place in all parts of the working section of a factory 
as it is important to keep a set of books in the office. 
According to the size and facilities of the plant, the state- 
ment should be prepared daily, weekly, or monthly. In 
this way progress or backsliding is easily discovered and 
guidance as to encouragement or remedy is obtained. 
While yearly reports are undoubtedly valuable in sum- 
ming up past business and laying future plans, yet the 
varying trade conditions of the cooperage business de- 
mands a more frequent perusal of all accounts incurred. 
This is also true of the relation that expenses bear to 
gross profit, this being a matter that requires attention 
both daily and monthly. 

Expenses, of course, govern the profits made, high 
prices by no means always meaning large net returns; 
and therefore it will be seen that, in tabulating expenses 
and in making provision for expected charges, careful- 
ness and conservatism in preparing reports must be kept 
constantly in mind. Carelessness and lax methods of 
procedure would not only be misleading, but would in all 
probability result in a temporary demoralization of ac- 
counts as well. 

The average cooperage concern does not find it neces- 
sary to have a daily cost statement made up in detail, but 
when reports are prepared from day to day it is of great 
value to specify the number of men employed, working 
hours of the factory, quantity of raw material received, 
production of the plant in its several different depart- 
ments, and a cash summary, together with general remarks 
on the day's work. It would seem to any one unfamiliar 



344 COOPERAGE 

with the preparation of such a statement that a large force 
of men and considerable expenditure would be required in 
order to show in such a short space of time a lucid, clear 
review of the operations of the mill or factory and mis- 
cellaneous branches of the plant. As a matter of fact, 
a little adjusting and rearranging of the existing methods 
of accounting and a proper style of bookkeeping are the 
chief factors. A certain amount of extra work is with- 
out doubt requisite, but the practical and monetary value 
of the influence obtained in handling the working staff 
engaged and in directing the use of capital greatly over- 
balances any objections on that score. Furthermore, 
when the expenditure question is considered, actual cost 
and accomplishment of results bear no comparison. 

The monthly report must be considered as being midway 
between the daily and yearly summaries, and should con- 
tain the past month's statistics, and, equally important, 
totals covering the period since the last taking of inven- 
tory and closing of books. The average cost sheet should 
always be devised in as compact a manner as possible, 
for, owing to the fact of a larger scope being contained 
in a monthly than in a daily statement, better ideas can 
be gained of the state of business when monthly totals 
are reviewed. The latter, under such conditions, may 
oftentimes be profitably dealt with in a number of dif- 
ferent ways. Sales and expense tabulating is valuable, 
inasmuch as sizes are condensed while all information 
is retained. Also, and in this the necessity for being- 
conservative again becomes apparent, approximate profit 
to date may be shown. In preparing all mill or fac- 
tory reports, no matter should be stated that does not 
give definite, valuable, complete and accurate informa- 
tion. The average management does not usually wish 
to measure the conditions of their business by millimetres 
or ounces, but desires a sort of bird's-eye view of the 



MODEBN SHOP MANAGEMENT 345 

most prominent features of plant operation. In open- 
ing np new departments, segregating sales, taking in- 
ventories, classifying and arranging expenses and costs, 
maintaining balance sheets, and other methods of hand- 
ling business too numerous to mention, no cooperage 
manufacturer or like concern can afford, provided that 
proper and necessary attention be given, to be without 
such reliable maps with which systematically to plan or 
project future courses of action. 

The foregoing remarks will suggest to the manager 
numerous details having a bearing on the subject, which 
he can critically investigate for himself with at least one 
good result — that if he is unable to economize (and surely 
he will find some room for economy) he will have the sat- 
isfaction of knowing that nothing has been overlooked in 
the administration of his business. Finally, he will bear 
in mind the necessity of providing, as far as possible, 
against the exigencies of strikes, fluctuating markets, and 
any risk likely to bring his works to a standstill, and he 
will seek to cultivate that kindly interest in his employees 
which goes far to secure faithful and profitable service. 



SECTION XII 



USEFUL RULES AND 
INFORMATION 



'. 



WEIGHTS OF SLACK COOPERAGE STOCK 

The following weights are of cooperage stock, taken 
from different sections of the country, and in the nsnal 
shipping conditions. 

The heading is kiln-dried, staves are thoroughly air- 
dried, and the hoops are in the usual air-dried condition 
for shipment. 

Staves that are kiln-dried would weigh some less, but 
as most of the staves are shipped in an air-dried condi- 
tion, comparatively few being shipped kiln-dried, the 
weights are for air-dried staves only. It is expected 
that in every instance staves and heading will be shipped 
in condition fit for use on receipt of same. 

Mixed timber staves will vary, because there are no 
stave rules as to what the timber shall be nor of what 
quantities of each species, but, as a rule, it can be prob- 
ably safely classified the same as gum staves for weight. 

These weights are sufficiently high to warrant the rail- 
roads in using them as a basis in adjusting of claims for 
overweight. Experience has proven conclusively that 
cooperage stock will not vary over two per cent, in weight 
for the same species of timber, and that, should the varia- 
tion be greater than this, the stock is not in merchantable 
condition, which possible variation of two per cent, has 
been taken into consideration in formulating this table 
of weights. 

ELM STAVES, NORTH OF THE OHIO RIVER 

Length Stave How Cut Average Width Weight per 1000 

20 inch cut 6 staves to '2 inches 3% inches 450 lbs. 



22 inch cut 6 staves to 2 



inches 3y 3 inches 485 lbs. 



24 inch cut 6 staves to 2 inches 3% inches 525 lbs. 

20 inch cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 570 lbs. 

21 inch cut 5 staves to 1% inches 4 inches 595 lbs. 



350 



COOPERAGE 



Length Stave 


How Cut 




Average Width 


Weight per 1000 
Staves 


22 inch 


cut 5 staves to 1^ 


/ 8 inches 


4 inches 


620 lbs. 


24 inch 


cut 5 staves to 1% inches 


4 inches 


670 lbs. 


28% inch 


cut 5 staves to 1% inches 


4 inches 


780 lbs. 


30 inch 


cut 5 staves to 11 


4 inches 


4 inches 


830 lbs. 


32 inch 


cut 5 staves to 1% inches 


4 inches 


885 lbs. 


33 inch 


cut 5 staves to 1? 


4 inches 


4 inches 


915 lbs. 


34 inch 


cut 5 staves to 1% inches 


4 inches 


945 lbs. 


ELM STAVES, SOUTH OF THE OHIO RIVER 


Length Stave 


How Cut 


Average Width 


Weight per 1000 
Staves 


28% inch 


5 staves to 1% 


inches 


4 inches 


800 lbs. 


30 inch 


5 staves to 1% 


inches 


4 inches ' 


840 lbs. 


32 inch 


5 staves to 1% 


inches 


4 inches 


925 lbs. 


34 inch 


5 staves to 1% 


inches 


4 inches 


1,000 lbs. 




HARDWOOD STAVES 




Length Stave 


How Cut 


Average Width 


Weight per 1000 
Staves 


28% inch 


6 staves to 2% 


inches 


4 inches 


950 lbs. 


30 inch 


6 staves to 2% 
GUM 


inches 
STAVES 


4 inches 


1,000 lbs. 


Length Stave 


How Cut 




Average Width 


Weight per 1000 
Staves 


231/2 inch 


5 staves to 1 15 /iq 


inches 


4 inches 


600 lbs. 


28% inch 


5 staves to 1 15 /iq 


inches 


4 inches 


800 lbs. 


30 inch 


5 staves to \ 1t> /\q 


inches 


4 inches 


840 lbs. 


32 inch 


5 staves to 1 15 /xq 


inches 


4 inches 


925 lbs. 


34' inch 


5 staves to 1 15 /xq 


inches 


4 inches 


1,000 lbs. 


23% inch 


6 staves to 2 


inches 


3% inches 


500 lbs. 


24 inch 


6 staves to 2 


inches 


4 inches 


525 lbs. 


36 inch 


5 staves to 2 


inches 


4 inches 


1,100 lbs. 


40 inch 


5 staves to 2% 6 


inches 


4 inches 


1,200 lbs. 




COTTONWOOD STAVES 




Length Stave 


How Cut 




Average Width 


Weight per 1000 
Staves 


28% inch 


5 staves to l 1 ^ 


inches 


4 inches 


650 lbs. 




COILED 


ELM HOOPS 




Length Hoop 


Dimensions 




Weight per 1000 
Hoops 


3 feet 8 inches 


% inch X % inch X 1% inches 


275 lbs. 


4 feet inches 


% inch X 


% inch X 


1% inches 


300 lbs. 


4 feet 4 inches 


% inch X 


% inch X 1% inches 


350 lbs. 


5 feet inches 


% inch X 


% inch X 1% inches 


400 lbs. 


5 feet 6 inches 


% 6 inch X 


% 6 inch X 


1% inches 


460 lbs. 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 351 



Length Hoop 


Dimensions 


Weight per 1000 


6 feet inches 


5/ 16 inch X -% 6 


inch X 1% inches 


Hoops 
500 lbs. 


6 feet 6 inches 


% 6 inch X % 6 inch X 1% inches 


545 lbs. 


6 feet 9 inches 


% e inch X % 6 


inch X 1% inches 


570 lbs. 


7 feet inches 


5/ 16 inch X 3/ 16 


inch X 1% inches 


600 lbs. 


7 feet 6 inches 


% 6 inch X 3/ 16 


inch X 1% inches 




650 lbs. 


8 feet inches 


5/ 16 inch X 3/ 16 


inch X 1% inches 


700 lbs. 






GUM HEADING 






Diameter 


Thickness 


Weight per 100 
Sets 


Diameter 


Thickness 


Weight per 
100 Set 


15% inches 


% inch 


360 lbs. 


2 1 inches 


% inch 


650 lbs. 


17% inches 


% inch 


435 lbs. 


22% inches 


% inch 


725 lbs. 


18% inches 


% inch 


500 lbs. 


23% inches 


% inch 


825 lbs. 


19% inches 


% inch 


550 lbs. 


24 inches 


% inch 


875 lbs. 


20 inches 


% inch 


600 lbs. 












COTTONWOOD HEADING 


# 






Diameter Thickness Weight per 100 Sets 






19% inches % 


inch 450 lbs. 








BASSWOOD HEADING 






Diameter 


Thickness 


Weight per 
100 Sets 


Diameter 


Thickness 


Weight per 
100 Sets 


14% inches 


% inch 


240 lbs. 


16% inches 


% inch 


300 lbs. 


15 inches 


% inch 


250 lbs. 


17% inches 


% inch 


340 lbs. 


15% inches 


% inch 


260 lbs. 
HARDWOOD 


19% inches 
HEADING 


% inch 


400 lbs. 


Diameter 


Thickness 


Weight per 
100 Sets 


Diameter 


Thickness 


Weight per 
100 Sets 


14% inches 


%6 inch 


310 lbs. 


16% inches 


%6 inch 


440 lbs. 


15 inches 


%6 inch 


340 lbs. 


17% inches 


VlQ inch 


500 lbs. 


15% inches 


%6 inch 


360 lbs. 


18% inches 


%6 inch 


600 lbs. 


16 inches 


%6 inch 


400 lbs. 


19% inches 


7/ 16 inch 


675 lbs. 



CAPACITY OF CARS 

When slack cooperage stock is bought by carload lots, 
and quantity is not specifically stated, the following shall 
be standard car-lots, as recommended by the Committee 
on Grades of the National Slack Cooperage Manufac- 
turers' Association. The idea of this is to have some 
guide where disputes arise through shipping enormous 
carloads on a falling market, and miniature carloads on 



352 



COOPERAGE 



a rising one ; but in any case there must be stock enough 
in the car to make a minimum carload weight, as required 
by the railroads. 



STAVES 



From 18 inches to 24 inches 
From 24 inches to 26 inches 
From 26 inches to 30 inches 
From 30 inches to 34 inches 
From 34 inches to 40 inches 



75,000 staves 
65,000 staves 
55,000 staves 
40,000 staves 
35,000 staves 



COILED ELM HOOPS 



From 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet 4 inches 
From 4 feet 4 inches to 5 feet inches 
From 5 feet inches to 5 feet 6 inches 
From 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 9 inches 
From 6 feet 9 inches to 7 feet 6 inches 
From 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet 6 inches 



100,000 hoops 
80,000 hoops 
60,000 hoops 
50,000 hoops 
48,000 hoops 
45,000 hoops 



HARDWOOD HEADING 



From 


11 


inches 


to 


12% 


inches 








. 18,000 sets 


From 


12% 


inches 


to 


14% 


inches 








. 15,000 sets 


From 


14y 2 


inches 


to 


15% 


inches 








10,000 sets 


From 


15% 


inches 


to 


16% 


inches 








9,000 sets 


From 


16%] 


inches 


to 


17% 


inches 








8,000 sets 


From 


17% 


inches 


to 


18% 


inches 








7,000 sets 


From 


18% 


inches 


to 


19% 


inches 








6,500 sets 


From 


19% 


inches 


to 


21 


inches 








6,000 sets 


From 


21 


inches 


to 


24 


inches 








3,500 sets 



PINE AND SOFTWOOD HEADING 



From 


11 


inches 


to 


12% 


inches 








20,000 


sets 


From 


12% 


inches 


to 


14% 


inches 








18,000 


sets 


From 


14% 


inches 


to 


15% 


inches 








12,000 


sets 


From 


15% 


inches 


to 


16% 


inches 








11,000 


sets 


From 


16% 


inches 


to 


17% 


inches 








10,000 


sets 


From 


17% 


inches 


to 


18% 


inches 








9,000 


sets 


From 


18% 


inches 


to 


19% 


inches 








7,500 


sets 


From 


19% 


inches 


to 


21 


inches 








7,000 


sets 


From 


21 


inches 


to 


24 


inches 








4,000 


sets 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 353 

LEGAL FRUIT BARREL IN NEW YORK 

STATE 

A eecent act of the New York Legislature has fixed 
the size and shape of the legal fruit barrel by adding 
to Article B of the agriculture law, Section 188, which 
says that a fruit barrel shall equal 100 quarts, 12% pecks, 
or 6,720 cubic inches, dry measure, and shall be of di- 
mensions as follows : Head diameter, 17/4 inches ; length 
of stave, 28% inches ; and the bilge not less than 64 inches, 
outside measurement. If the barrel is made straight up 
and down, or without any bilge, it shall contain the same 
number of cubic inches as is described in the foregoing. 
Any person or party making, manufacturing, or causing 
to be made or manufactured barrels for use in the sale 
of apples, pears, quinces, or any other fruit, or selling 
such fruit in barrels containing less than is above speci- 
fied, shall be compelled to brand such barrels, "upon 
each end and upon the side, ' ' with the conspicuous letters 
at least one and one-half inches in length, "Short barrel." 
The penalty for violation is not stated in the section, but 
it may be provided for in the general law. 

LEGAL FRUIT BARREL IN THE STATE 

OF INDIANA 

The legal fruit barrel in the State of Indiana shall not 
contain less than 12 pecks, 96 quarts, or 6,451 cubic inches, 
an act having been passed by the Legislature of that 
State to that effect. 

NOTES ON BELTING 

A belt transmits power solely through frictional con- 
tact with the surface of the pulley. 

The lower side of the belt should be made the driving 
side when possible, as the arc of contact is thereby in- 



354 COOPERAGE 

creased by the sagging of the slack side. By this method 
belts may be run much slacker and with less strain or 
friction on the bearings than otherwise, and a greater 
horsepower transmitted. 

Increase of power will be obtained by increasing the 
size of the pulleys, the same ratio being retained. 

Wide belts are less effective per unit of sectional area 
than narrow belts, and long belt drives are more effective 
than short ones. 

The proportion between the diameters of two pulleys 
working together should not exceed 6 to 1. 

Convexity or crown of pulleys should equal Vs to M inch 
in the width up to 12 inches wide ; for larger sizes, % to % 
inch per foot of width. 

The convexity or crown of driving and driven pulleys 
should be alike in amount. 

The pulley always should be from % to 1% inches wider 
than the belt, according to the width of face. 

The driving pulley is called the "driver," and the 
driven pulley is called the "driven" or follower. 

The horsepower of a belt equals velocity in feet per 
minute, multiplied by the width, and this sum divided 
by 1,000. 

A 1-inch single belt, moving at 1,000 feet per minute, 
equals one horsepower. 

A 1-inch double belt, moving at 700 feet per minute, 
equals one horsepower. 

Oak-tanned leather belts make the best belts. 

When belts are run with the hair side (smooth side) 
next to the pulley they have greater adhesion and trans- 
mit more power. 

The ordinary thickness of leather belts is %e inch, and 
their weight is about 60 pounds per cubic foot. 

Ordinarily four-ply cotton belting is considered equiva- 
lent to single-leather belting. 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 355 

The average breaking strain of single-leather belt is 
530 pounds per inch in width ; three-ply rubber belt, 600 
pounds per inch in width. 



" speed op belts' ' 

Belts have been employed running over 5,800 feet per 
minute. Nothing, however, is gained by running belts 
much over 4,000 feet per minute. About 3,500 feet per 
minute for main belts is considered good practice. 

The life of a belt may be prolonged and its driving 
power increased by keeping it in good working order. 

"To clean belts" which are dirty from drop oil and 
dust, first wash the belts with warm water and soap, 
using a sharp, stiff brush, and while still moist rub them 
with a solution of sal ammoniac, which saponifies the oil 
in them. Immediately thereafter the belt must be rinsed 
well with lukewarm water and then dried with sufficient 
tension. While they are still moist the belts are to be 
rubbed well on the inside and less on the outside with 
the following : 2 pounds % ounce India rubber, heated to 
122° Fahr. and mixed with 2 pounds % ounce rectified tur- 
pentine oil. After the solution is complete, 27 ounces of 
bright resin are added, and when this is dissolved add 
26% ounces of yellow wax. This mixture, by diligent 
stirring, is mixed with 6 pounds 10 ounces of fish oil and 
2 pounds 12 ounces of tallow previously dissolved in the 
fish oil. In the further treatment of the belt, rub the 
inside only, and the outside only at the first treatment, as 
stated. This belt dressing, if properly mixed and applied, 
will prevent dragging of the belt and imparts elasticity 
to it. 

One of the simplest and best belt dressings is made 
from 1 part neatsfoot oil and 3 parts castor oil. 

The best joint for a belt is the cemented joint. This 



356 COOPERAGE 

requires time and patience to shave down properly and 
about five hours to set. 

The worst joint is the ordinary laced joint. It has 
the merit of being made quickly. Another method is 
the "hinge plan." The important item in this plan is 
good lace leather, which should be strong, well tanned, 
and uniform in thickness. 

The annealed nickel wire makes an excellent belt lac- 
ing, but care must be exercised in inserting it, for if the 
wire is crossed or lapped over one another on the pulley 
side the lacing will not last long. The composition wire 
made especially for this purpose is better suited for 
lacing than the annealed nickel wire. 

In applying, a single row of holes is used, the holes 
being no farther from the end than the thickness of the 
belt, and % inch apart, and should be cut with a %2-inch 
belt punch. Cut a depression on inside of belt for the 
wire, so that it will be clear of face of pulley. Commence 
lacing at the centre by passing the ends of the wire 
through the two centre holes to the pulley side of the 
belt. The lacing should be double on the pulley side; 
then lace each way to the side, double-lacing on the inside, 
drawing up tightly all the time without kinks or crossing 
the wire. When finished, flatten down with a hammer on 
the pulley face. 

A properly wire-laced joint makes the belt appear end- 
less, as there is no jar when the joint passes over the 
pulley. 

KULES FOE CALCULATING SPEED OF PULLEYS 

"To determine the diameter of the driver," the diam- 
eter of the driven and its revolutions, as also revolutions 
of driver being given. 

Diam. of driven X revolutions of driven tv o -, . 
=- z-^P — = Diam ol driver. 

Kevolutions of driver 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 357 

"To determine the diameter of the driven," the revo- 
lutions of the driven and the diameter and revolutions of 
the driver being given. 

Diam. of driver X revolutions of driver ^. ~ , . 

^ f— n — o-j—- = Diam of driven. 

Revolutions 01 driven 

"To determine the revolutions of the driver," the di- 
ameter and revolutions of the driven and the diameter 
of the driver being given. 

Diam. of driven X revolutions of driven _ Revolutions 
Diam. of driver of driver. 

"To determine the revolutions of the driven," the di- 
ameter and revolutions of the driver and diameter of the 
driven being given. 

Diam. of driver X revolutions of driver _ Revolutions 
Diam. of driven of driven. 

If the number of teeth in gears is used instead of diam- 
eter in these calculations, number of teeth must be sub- 
stituted whenever diameter occurs. 



POWER OF BELTING 

To calculate roughly the power of belts, the following 
rules may be used: 

To determine the "horsepower" transmitted of a 
single-leather belt. 

Width of belt in i n. X speed in ft. per min. _ Horsepower 

900 transmitted. 

To determine the "proper width" of a single-leather 
belt to transmit a given horsepower. 

c Tr? ^° rSe P° Wer . = Proper width of belt. 
Speed of belt m ft. per mm. 



358 



COOPERAGE 



HORSE-POWER OF LEATHER BELTS PER INCH OF WIDTH 



Velocity op 
Belt in Feet 
per Minute 


Best Oak Tanned Belts 




Best Link or Chain Belts 
























Light 
Double 
Belts 


Heavy 

Double 

Belts 


a 

o 
g 

3S 


a 
g 

5 


a 

u 

g 

5 




— 


1 INCH 


100 


0.15 


0.21 


0.27 


0.13 


0.15 


0.17 


0.20 


0.24 


0.27 


200 


0.30 


0.42 


0.55 


0.25 


0.29 


0.35 


0.40 


0.47 


0.55 


300 


0.45 


0.64 


0.82 


0.38 


0.44 


0.52 


0.60 


0.71 


0.82 


400 


0.61 


0.85 


1.09 


0.51 


0.58 


0.69 . 


0.80 


0.95 


1.09 


500 


0.76 


1.06 


1.36 


0.64 


0.73 


0.86- 


1.00 


1.18 


1.36 


600 


0.91 


1.27 


1.64 


0.76 


0.87 


1.04 


1.20 


1.42 


1.64 


700 


1.06 


1.49 


1.91 


0.89 


1.02 


1.21 


1.40 


1.65 


1.91 


800 


1.21 


1.70 


2.18 


0.92 


1.16 


1.38 


1.60 


1.89 


2.18 


900 


1.36 


1.91 


2.45 


1.05 


1.31 


1.55 


1.80 


2.13 


2.45 


1000 


1.51 


2.12 


2.73 


1.27 


1.45 


1.73 


2.00 


2.36 


2.73 


1100 


1.67 


2.33 


3.00 


1.40 


1.60 


1.90 


2.20 


2.60 


3.00 


1200 


1.82 


2.55 


3.27 


1.53 


1.75 


2.07 


2.40 


2.84 


3.27 


1300 


1.97 


2.76 


3.55 


1.65 


1.89 


2.25 


2.60 


3.07 


3.55 


1400 


2.12 


2.97 


3.82 


1.78 


2.04 


2.42 


2.80 


3.31 


3.82 


1500 


2.27 


3.18 


4.09 


1.91 


2.18 


2.59 


3.00 


3.55 • 


4.09' 


1600 


2.42 


3.39 


4.36 


2.04 


2.33 


2.76 


3.20 


3.78 


4.36 


1700 


2.58 


3.61 


4.64 


2.16 


2.47 


2.94 


3.40 


•4.02 


4.64 


1800 


2.73 


3.82 


4.91 


2.29 


2.62 


3.11 


3.60 


4.25 


4.91 


1900 


2.88 


4.03 


5.18 


2.42 


2.76 


3.28 


3.80 


4.49 


5.18 


2000 


3.03 


4.24 


5.45 


2.55 


2.91 


3.45 


4.00 


4.73 


5.45 


2100 


3.18 


4.45 


5.73 


2.67 


3.05 


3.63 


4.20 


4.96 


5.73 


2200 


3.33 


4.67 


6.00 


2.80 


3.20 


3.80 


4.40 


5.20 


6.00 


2300 


3.49 


4.88 


6.27 


2.93 


3.35 


3.97 


4.60 


5.44 


6.27 


2400 


3.64 


5.09 


6.55 


3.05 


3.49 


4.15 


4.80 


5.67 


6.55 


2500 


3.79 


5.30 


6.82 


3.18 


3.64 


4.32 


5.00 


5.91 


6.82 


2600 


3.94 


5.52 


7.09 


3.24 


3.78 


4.49 


5.20 


6.15 


7.03 


2700 


4.09 


5.73 


7.36 


3.28 


3.85 


4.66 


5.40 


6.38 


7.36 


2800 


4.24 


5.94 


7.64 


3.31 


3.86 


4.73 


5.60 


6.62 


7.64 


2900 


4.39 


6.15 


7.91 


3.32 


3.87 


4.78 


5.80 


6.85 


7.91 


3000 


4.50 


6.36 


8.18 


3.31 


3.86 


4.75 


5.97 


7.03 


8.18 


3100 


4.60 


6.58 


8.45 


3.30 


3.85 


4.73 


5.96 


7.33 


8.45 


3200 


4.69 


6.79 


8.70 


3.28 


3.82 


4.71 


5.94 


7.37 


8.73 


3300 


4.77 


7.00 


8.86 


3.24 


3.77 


4.70 


5.92 


7.35 


8.88 


3400 


4.84 


7.21 


8.96 


3.19 


3.71 


4.64 


5.87 


7.32 


8.83 


3.500 


4.90 


7.31 


9.06 


3.13 


3.61 


4.50 


5.78 


7.26 


8.80 


3600 


4.95 


7.40 


9.16 


3.05 


3.50 


4.37 


5.67 


7.10 


8.73 


3700 


4.99 


7.48 


9.24 


2.96 


3.39 


4.26 


5.55 


7.01 


8.58 


3800 


5.03 


7.54 


9.29 


2.84 


3.28 


4.15 


5.41 


6.87 


8.41 


3900 


5.06 


7.60 


9.34 


2.72 


3.13 


4.02 


5.20 


6.70 


8.27 


4000 


5.08 


7.64 


9.37 


2.58 


2.95 


3.81 


5.01 


6.18 


8.04 


4200 


5.10 


7.70 


9.38 


2.27 


2.55 


3.37 


4.52 


5.98 


7.51 


4500 


5.07 


7.69 


9.27 


1.04 


1.77 


2.45 


3.68 


5.05 


6.55 


5000 


4.82 


7.42 


8.75 


0.42 


0.15 


0.61 


1.55 


2.78 


4.32 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 359 

To determine the "proper speed" a single-leather belt 
should travel to transmit a given horsepower. 

900 X horsepower to be transmitted Proper speed 
Width of belt in inches " in ft. per min. 

To determine "the horsepower" transmitted of a dou- 
ble-leather belt. 

Width of belt in in. X speed in ft. per m in. _ Horsepower 

630 transmitted. 

To determine the "proper width" of a double-leather 
belt to transmit a given horsepower. 

630 X horsepower _, . _,. „, _ t 

qTtAfl .] ,vPi^u ;„ -p+ — = Froper width of belt. 

bpeed oi belt m it. per mm. 

To determine the "proper speed" a double-leather belt 
should travel to transmit a given horsepower. 

630 X horsepower to be transmitted _ Proper speed 
Width of belt in inches ~ in ft. per min. 

These rules are simple calculations and give good, 
practical results where there is no great inequality in 
the diameters of the pulleys. To find the "speed of a 
belt in feed per minute," multiply the diameter of the 
pulley by 3.1416. This will give you the circumference 
in inches. Then multiply this by the number of revo- 
lutions the pulley makes per minute, and divide the 
product by 12. This will give you the speed of the belt 
in feet per minute. 

The "working tension" of a leather belt is generally 
figured as being from 70 to 150 pounds per inch of width. 

BABBITT METAL AND BABBITTING 

Nearly half a century ago Isaac Babbitt, of Taunton, 
Mass., originated the alloy which has since been known 



360 



COOPERAGE 



as Babbitt metal. It is highly valued for its anti-friction 
qualities as compared with other metals. Isaac Babbitt 
was a goldsmith by trade, and made the first Britannia 
ware that was produced in this country. He was honored 
with a gold medal for his discovery of his anti-friction 
alloy and was also presented with $20,000 by the Congress 
of the United States. 

Below are several formulas for preparing Babbitt 
metal for the different uses as specified-: 

1. Copper . . . . . .10 parts 

Tin ....... 72 parts 

Antimony . . . . . .18 parts 



Total . . . .100 parts 

This alloy is recommended for all high-speed ma- 
chinery journal boxes. 
2. Copper ...... 1 part 

Tin ....... 48 parts 

Antimony ...... 5 parts 

Lead ....... 2 parts 



Total . . . .56 parts 
This alloy is more economical than No. 1, and has a 
more greasy touch than the first named, but is not so de- 
sirable for high-speed machinery. 

3. Lead ....... 32 parts 

Zinc ....... 20 parts 

Antimony . . . . . .48 parts 

Total . . . .100 parts 

This alloy will resist a rapid friction, but it is not 
suited for high-speed machinery. 

4. Lead ....... 90 parts 

Antimony ...... 100 parts 



Total 



190 parts 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 361 

This is a very cheap alloy, suitable only for slow-mov- 
ing machinery, etc. 

5. Copper 77 parts 

Tin ........ 8 parts 

Lead 15 parts 

Phosphorus Trace 

Total . . . .100 parts 
This alloy is exclusively for heavy machinery bearings. 

6. Copper 3 parts 

Tin 89 parts 

Antimony 8 parts 

Total .... 100 parts 

This is the original Babbitt metal, is not very ex- 
pensive, and can be used for all classes of machinery 
bearings where weight is not excessive. 

In babbitting bearings it is always advisable to put 
a piece of rosin into the Babbitt metal before pouring. 
After putting in the rosin, stir the metal thoroughly with 
a pine stick, then skim off any refuse or other matter. 
It makes poor Babbitt metal run better and improves it, 
and especially when metal from old bearings is used. 
It also has a tendency to prevent blowing when pouring 
into damp boxes. Babbitt heated just hot enough to 
light a pine stick will run in places with the rosin in where 
without it it would not. 

GLUE TO BESIST MOISTURE 

Dissolve 1 pound of clean glue in 2 quarts of skimmed 
milk. 

RECEIPTS FOR SOLDERING FLUIDS 

1. One dram each of powdered copperas, borax, and 
prussiate of potash; % ounce powdered sal-ammoniac; 
3% ounces fluid muriatic acid. Let the mixture cut all 



362 COOPERAGE 

the zinc it will, and then dilute with one pint of water. 
This is something extra for soldering the raw edges of 
tin or galvanized iron. The above quantity of fluid will 
cost about fifteen cents. 

2. Add granulated zinc or zinc scraps to 2 fluid ounces 
of muriatic acid, until hydrogen ceases to be given off; 
add 1 teaspoonful of ammonium chloride; then shake 
well and add 2 fluid ounces of water. 

3. A very good fluid for soldering bright tin can be 
made by simply adding sweet oil to well-pounded rosin. 
It was used years ago by the tinners of Great Britain 
for soldering planished ware made in those days, and is 
excellent for soldering fine work, silver and plated ware. 
It can be wiped off with a clean rag and leaves no stain 
or scratches. 

USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION ON 

WATER 

Dotjblixg the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity 
four times. 

Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of 
the velocity. 

The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually esti- 
mated at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a 
perfect vacuum it will sustain a column of mercury 29.9 
inches or a column of water 33.9 feet high at sea level. 

"To find the pressure in pounds per square inch" of 
a column of water, multiply the height of the column by 
.434. Approximately, we say that every foot of eleva- 
tion is equal to % pound pressure per square inch; this 
allows for ordinary friction. 

"To find the diameter of a pump cylinder" necessary 
to move a given quantity of water per minute (100 feet 
of piston being the standard of speed), divide the number 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 363 

of gallons by 4, then extract the square root, and the 
product will be the diameter in inches of the pump 
cylinder. 

' ' To find the quantity of water elevated in one minute, ' ' 
running at 100 feet of piston speed per minute, square 
the diameter of the water cylinder in inches and multiply 
by 4. 

Example^ Capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. 
The square of the diameter (5 inches) is 25, which multi- 
plied by 4, gives 100, which is approximately the number 
of gallons elevated per minute. 

"To find the horsepower necessary to elevate water" 
to a given height, multiply the weight of the water ele- 
vated per minute in pounds by the height in feet, and 
divide the product by 33,000. (An allowance should be 
added for water friction and a further allowance for loss 
in steam cylinder, say from 20 to 30 per cent.) 

"The area of the steam piston" multiplied by the 
steam pressure gives the total amount of pressure that 
can be exerted. 

"The area of water piston" multiplied by the pressure 
of the water per square inch gives the resistance. A mar- 
gin must be made between the power and the resistance 
to move the pistons at the required speed — say, from 
20 to 40 per cent., according to speed and other condi- 
tions. 

"To find the capacity of a pump cylinder" in gallons, 
multiply the area in inches by the length of stroke in 
inches. This will give the total number of cubic inches. 
Divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubic contents 
of a U. S. gallon in inches), and the product is the 
capacity in gallons. 

"To find the capacity of a barrel" in gallons, to the 
head diameter add two-thirds of the difference between 
the head and the bilge diameters, and multiply the area 



o 



64 COOPERAGE 



by the inside length in inches ; divide this amount by 231, 
and the product is the capacity in U. S. gallons. 

USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION ON 

STEAM 

One cubic inch of water evaporated under ordinary 
atmospheric pressure is converted into one cubic foot 
of steam (approximately). 

The specific gravity of steam (at atmospheric pres- 
sure) is .411 that of air at 34° Fahr., and .0006 that of 
water at the same temperature. 

27,222 cubic feet of steam weigh one pound. 

13,817 cubic feet of air weigh one pound. 

Locomotives average a consumption of 3,000 gallons 
of water per 100 miles run. 

The best-designed boilers, well set, with good draft 
and skilful firing will evaporate 7 to 10 pounds of water 
per pound of first-class coal. 

In calculating horsepower of tubular or flue boilers, 
consider 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to 
one nominal horsepower. 

On one square foot of grate can be burned on an 
average of from 10 to 12 pounds of hard coal, or 18 
to 20 pounds of soft coal per hour with natural draft. 
With forced draft nearly double these amounts can be 
burned. 

Steam engines, in economy, vary from 14 to 60 pounds 
of feed water, and from 1% to 7 pounds of coal per hour 
per indicated horsepower. 

Condensing engines require from 20 to 30 gallons 
of water at an average low temperature to condense 
the steam represented by every gallon of water 
evaporated in the boilers, supplying the engine— 
approximately for most engines, we say, from 1 to 1 X A 



USEFUL EULES AND INFORMATION 365 

gallons condensing water per minute per indicated horse- 
power. 

Surface condensers should have about 2 square feet 
of tube (cooling) surface per horsepower for a compound 
steam engine. Ordinary engines will require more sur- 
face, according to their economy in the use of steam. It 
is absolutely necessary to place air pumps below con- 
densers to get satisfactory results. 

RATIO OF VACUUM TO TEMPERATURE ( FAHRENHEIT) OF FEED 

WATER 



00 inches vacuum = 212° 
1 1 inches vacuum = 190° 
18 inches vacuum == 170° 
22% inches vacuum = 150° 



25 inches vacuum 
27% inches vacuum 
28% inches vacuum 
29 inches vacuum 



135° 

112° 

92° 

72° 



29% inches vacuum = 52' 



25 inches of vacuum is usually considered the standard 
point of efficiency, the condenser and air pump being well 
proportioned. 

DUTY OF STEAM ENGINES (HIGH GRADE ) 



Type of Engine 


Temper- 
ature of 
Feed 
Water 


Pounds of 
Water 
Evapo- 
rated per 
Pound of 
Cumber- 
land Coal 


Pounds of 

Steam per 

I. H. P. 

Used per 

Hour 


Pounds of 
Cumber- 
land Coal 
Used per 
I. H. P. 
per Hour 


Cost per 
I. H. P. per 

Hour Sup- 
posing 
Coal to be 
$6.00 per 
Ton 


Non-condensing 


210° 
100° 
100° 
100° 


10.5 
9.4 
9.4 
9.4 


29.0 
20.0 
17.0 
13.6 


2.75 
2.12 
1.81 
1.44 


$0.0073 


Condensing 


0.0056 


Triple Expansion Jacketed 


0.0045 
0.0036 



The effect of a good condenser and air pump should 
be to make available about 10 pounds more mean effect- 



366 COQPERAGK 

ive pressure with the same terminal pressure, or to give 
the same mean effective pressure with a correspondingly 
less terminal pressure. When the load on the engine 
requires 20 pounds mean effective pressure, the con- 
denser does half the work; at 30 pounds, one-third of 
the work; at 40 pounds, one-fourth, etc. It is safe to 
assume that practically the condenser will save from 
one-fourth to one-third of the fuel, and can be applied 
to any style engine, either cut-off or throttling, where a 
sufficient supply of water is available. 

WEIGHT AND COMPARATIVE FUEL VALUE OP WOOD 

One cord air-dried: 

Hickory weighs about 4,500 lbs. and is equal to about 2,000 lbs. coal. 

Hard maple weighs about 4,500 lbs. and is equal to about 2,000 lbs. coal. 
White oak weighs about 3,850 lbs. and is equal to about 1,715 lbs. coal. 
Red oak weighs about 3,250 lbs. and is equal to about 1,450 lbs. coal. 
Beech weighs about 3,250 lbs. and is equal to about 1,450 lbs. coal. 

Poplar weighs about 2,350 lbs. and is equal to about 1,050 lbs. coal. 

Chestnut weighs about 2,350 lbs. and is equal to about 1,050 lbs. coal. 
Elm weighs about 2,350 lbs. and is equal to about 1,050 lbs. coal. 

Average pine weighs about 2,000 lbs. and is equal to about 925 lbs. coal. 

From the above it is safe to assume that 2% pounds 
of dry wood is equal to 1 pound average quality of soft 
coal, and that the full value of the same weight of differ- 
ent woods is very nearly the same; that is, a pound of 
hickory is worth no more for fuel than a pound of pine, 
assuming both to be dry. It is important that the wood 
be dry, as each 10 per cent, of water or moisture in wood 
will detract about 12 per cent, from its value as fuel. 

TO PLACE AN ENGINE ON THE DEAD CENTRE 

To place an engine on its dead centre, bring the cross- 
head to within about half an inch of the end of its travel. 
Take a pair of dividers and from a point on the guides 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 367 

strike an arc of a circle on the cross-head, and with the 
engine in the same position, tram from a point on the 
floor to the rim of the wheel; then move the engine in 
the direction it is to rnn nntil the cross-head has passed 
the end of its travel and returned to a point where the 
dividers will coincide with the mark already made on 
the cross-head. Make another tram mark on the rim of 
the flywheel, and midway between these two marks make 
a centre punch mark for a "dead-centre mark." Bring 
the flywheel to a point, that the point of the tram will 
just enter the dead-centre mark, and the engine is on 
its exact centre at that end. Then repeat the operation 
on the other end. In all cases move the engine in the 
direction it is to run, and if moved past the dead-centre 
mark it must be backed up far enough to take up the lost 
motion before reaching the mark again. 

HOKSEPOWEK OF AN ENGINE 

An easy method of figuring the horsepower of an en- 
gine will be found in the following formula: 

Diam. 2 X stroke X revs.X M. E. P. _ H p 
250,000 " " * 

This is explained as follows: Multiply the diameter 
of the piston in inches by its diameter (or, in other words, 
square the diameter) ; multiply this product by the length 
of the stroke in inches ; then multiply by the number of 
strokes per minute and this product by the mean effective 
pressure in pounds per square inch on the piston during 
one stroke. Dividing this total by 250,000 will give you 
the horsepower. The result is accurate to within 2 per 
cent. 

Still another easy method is as follows: Multiply the 



368 



COOPERAGE 



diameter of the piston in inches by itself, then by .4, then 
by the mean effective pressure, then by the number of 
strokes per minute, and point off six places. The result 
will be the horsepower to within 2 per cent. 

If an indicator card cannot be obtained, a fair approx- 
imation to the M. E. P. may be obtained by adding 14.7 
to the gauge pressure, and multiplying the number oppo- 
site the fraction indicating the point of cut-off in the fol- 
lowing table by the boiler pressure. Then subtract. 17 
from the product, and multiply by .9. The result is the 
M. E. P. for good, simple non-condensing engines. If 
the engine is a simple condensing engine, subtract the 
pressure in the condenser instead of 17. 



Cut off 


Constant 


Cut-off 


Constant 


Cut-off 


Constant 


i 


.566 


3 

8 


.771 


o 
3" 


.917 


i 

o 


.603 


.4 


.789 


.7 


.926 


i 


.659 


i 
3" 


.847 


3 
T 


.937 


.3 


.708 


.6 


.895 


.8 


.944 


i 

3 


.743 


5 

3" 


.904 


7 
• 8 


.951 



The fraction indicating the point of cut-off is obtained 
by dividing the distance that the piston has travelled 
when the steam is cut off by the whole length of the 
stroke. 

Example : Stroke is 30 inches, and the steam is cut off 
when the piston has travelled 20 inches. The engine cuts 
off at 2 % = % stroke. For a % cut-off and a 92-pound 
gauge pressure in the boiler, the M. E. P. is 
(92 + 14.7) X .917 — 171 X .9 = 72.76 pounds per square 

inch. 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 369 

INDICATED HORSE-POWER " PER POUND " OF MEAN EFFECTIVE 
PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH 

( " HORSE-POWER CONSTANTS " ) 



Diameter 

of 
Cylinder 
in Inches 



240 



1 
6 


0.205 


0.257 


0.3 


7 


0.28 


0.35, 


0.408 


8 


0.365 


0.457 


0.533 


9 


0.463 


0.578 


0.675 


10 


0.571 


0.714 


0.833 


11 


0.691 


0.864 


1.008 


12 


0.822 


1.028 


1.119 


13 


0.965 


1.206 


1.408 


14 


1.119 


1.399 


1.633 


15 


1.285 


1.606 


1.874 


16 


1.462 


1.828 


2.132 


17 


1.651 


2.063 


2.407 


18 


1.851 


2.313 


2.699 


19 


2.062 


2.577 


3.007 


20 


2.285 


2.856 


3.332 


21 


2.519 


3.149 


3.673 


22 


2.764 


3.456 


4.032 


23 


3.021 


3.777 


4.406 


24 


3.29 


4.112 


4.798 


25 


3.57 


4.462 


5.206 


26 


3.86 


4.826 


5.63 


27 


4.164 


5.205 


6.072 


28 


4.478 


5.598 


6.531 


29 


4.804 


6.005 


7.005 


30 


5.141 


6.426 


7.497 


31 


5.489 


6.861 


8.005 


32 


5.849 


7.311 


8.53 


33 


6.22 


7.775 


9.071 


34 


6.603 


8.254 


9.629 


35 


6.997 


8.746 


10.204 


36 


7.403 


9.253 


10.795 


37 


7.82 


9.774 


11.404 


38 


8.248 


10.31 


12.028 


39 


8.688 


10.86 


12.67 


40 


9.139 


11.424 


13.328 


41 


9.602 


12.002 


14.003 


42 


10.076 


12.595 


14.694 


43 


10.561 


13.202 


15.402 


44 


11.058 


13.823 


16.127 


45 


11.567 


14.458 


16.868 


46 


12.086 


15.108 


17.626 


47 


12.618 


15.772 


18.401 


48 


13.16 


16.45 


19.192 


49 


13.714 


17.143 


20.0 


50 


14.28 


17.85 


20.825 



Speed op Piston in Feet per Minute 



300 



350 



400 



450 



0.343 

0.466 

0.609 

0.771 

0.952 

1.152 

1.371 

1.509 

1.866 

2.142 

2.437 

2.751 

3.084 

3.437 

3.808 

4.198 

4.6*07 

5.036 

5.483 

5.95 

6.434 

6.94 

7.464 

8.006 

8.568 

9.149 

9.748 

10.367 

11.005 

11.662 

12.338 

13.033 

13.747 

14.48 

15.232 

16.003 

16.793 

17.602 

18.431 

19.278 

20.144 

21.03 

21.934 

22.857 

23.8 



0.385 

0.525 

0.685 

0.867 

1.071 

1.296 

1.542 

1.81 

2.099 

2.41 

2.742 

3.095 

3.470 

3.866 

4.284 

4.723 

5.183 

5.665 

6.169 

6.694 

7.238 

7.807 

8.397 

9.007 

9.639 

10.292 

10.967 

11.663 

12.381 

13.12 

13.88 

14.662 

15.465 

16.29 

17.136 

18.003 

18.892 

19.803 

20.734 

21.688 

22.662 

23.658 

24.676 

25.714 

26.775 



500 



0.428 

0.583 

0.761 

0.964 

1.19 

1.44 

1.713 

2.011 

2.332 

2.677 

3.046 

3.439 

3.855 

4.296 

4.76 

5.248 

5.759 

6.295 

6.854 

7.437 

8.043 

8.675 

9.329 

10.008 

10.71 

11.436 

12.185 

12.959 

13.756 

14.577 

15.422 

16.291 

17.183 

18.1 

19.04 

20.004 

20.991 

22.003 

23.038 

24.097 

25.18 

26.287 

27.417 

28.572 

29.75 



550 



0.471 

0.641 

0.837 

1.06 

1.309 

1.584 

1.885 

2.212 

2.565 

2.945 

3.351 

3.783 

4.241 

4.725 

5.236 

5.773 

6.335 

6.924 

7.539 

8.181 

8.847 

9.542 

10.262 

11.009 

11.781 

12.579 

13.404 

14.255 

15.132 

16.035 

16.964 

17.92 

18.902 

19.91 

20.944 

22.004 

23.091 

24.203 

25.342 

26.507 

27.698 

28.916 

30.159 

31.429 

32.725 



600 



0.514 

0.699 

0.914 

1.157 

1.428 

1.728 

2.056 

2.413 

2.799 

3.213 

3.656 

4.127 

4.627 

5.155 

5.712 

6.297 

6.911 

7.554 

8.225 

8.925 

9.651 

10.41 

11.195 

12.009 

12.852 

13.753 

14.623 

15.551 

16.508 

17.493 

18.506 

19.549 

20.62 

21.72 

22.848 

24.004 

25.19 

26.403 

27.646 

28.917 

30.216 

31.545 

32.901 

34.286 

35.7 



370 



COOPERAGE 



This formula is worked out as follows 

Gauge pressure 92 pounds 
Atmospheric pressure 14.7 pounds 

Total pressure 106.7 
Horsepower constant .917 

7469 
1067 
9603 



97.8439 

Less 17 



80.8439 
.9 



M. E. P.= 72.75951 or 72.76 pounds per square in. 

The "actual horsepower" of an engine is usually ap- 
proximated as three-fourths of the "indicated horse- 
power." 



USEFUL NUMBERS 


FOR RAPID APPROXIMATION 


(From Hamilton's Useful Information for Railroad Men) 


Feet 


X 


.00019 


= miles. 


Yards 


X 


.0006 


= miles. 


Links 


X 


.22 


= yards. 


Links 


X 


.66 


= feet. 


Feet 


X 


1.5 


— links. 


Square inches 


X 


.007 


— square feet. 


Circular inches 


X 


.00546 


= square feet. 


Square feet 


X 


.111 


= square yards. 


Acres 


X 4840. 


= square yards. 


Square yards 


X 


.0002026 = acres. 


Width in chains 


X 


8. 


= acres per mile. 


Cubic feet 


X 


.04 


= cubic yards. 


Cubic inches 


X 


.00058 


= cubic feet. 


U. S. bushels 


X 


.046 


= cubic yards. 


U. S. bushels 


X 


1.244 


= cubic feet. 


U. S. bushels 


X 2150.42 


= cubic inches. 


Cubic feet 


X 


.8036 


= U. S. bushels. 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 371 



Cubic inches 

U. S. gallons 

Ij. S. gallons 

Cubic feet 

Cylindrical feet 

Cubic inches 

Cylindrical inches 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Cubic feet water 

Cubic inches water 

Cylindrical foot of water 

Cylindrical inches of water 

U. S. gallons of water 

U. S. gallons of water 

Cubic feet of water 

Cubic feet of water 

Cylindrical foot of water 

Column water 12" high, 1" diam. 

183,346 circular inches 

2,200 cylindrical inches 

French metres 

Kilogrammes 

Crammes 



X .000466 


= U. S. bushels. 


X .13368 


= cubic feet. 


X 231. 


= cubic inches. 


X 7.48 


= U. S. gallons. 


X 5.878 


= U. S. gallons. 


X .004329 


= U. S. gallons. 


X .0034 


= U. S. gallons. 


X .009 


= cwt. (112 lbs.). 


X .00045 


= tons (2,240 lbs.). 


X 62.5 


— pounds avoirdupois 


X .03617 


= pounds avoirdupois 


X 49.1 


= pounds avoirdupois 


X .02842 


= pounds avoirdupois 


-r- 13.44 


= cwt. (112 lbs.). 


■f- 268.8 


= tons (2,240 lbs.). 


— 1.8 


= cwt. (112 lbs.). 


-T- 35.88 


= tons. 


X 5.875 


= C S. gallons. 




= 34 pounds. 




= 1 square foot. 




= 1 cubic foot. 


X 3.281 


— feet. 


X 2.205 


— avoirdupois pounds 


X .0022 


= avoirdupois pounds 



DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF FKACTIONAL PAETS OF AN INCH 



Frac- 
tions 


Decimals 


Frac- 
tions 


. Decimals 


Frac- 
tions 


Decimals 


Frac- 
tions 


Decimals 


i 

3T 

A 

3 

rV 

5 

ST 

3 

7 

ST 
1 

A 

5 
T2" 

u 

3 

TS 
is 

eT 

7 

i 


0.015625 

0.03125 

0.046875 

0.0625 

0.078125 

0.09375 

0.109375 

0.125 

0.140625 

0.15625 

0.171875 

0.1875 

0.203125 

0.21875 

0.234375 

0.25 


1 7 
TSX 

9 
32" 
1 9 
6T 

5 
TS" 
21 
"ST 
1 1 
33 
23 

"6T 

3 

8 

25 
6T 
1 8 
"3? 
27 
6T 

7 
T6~ 
29 
67 

H 

31 

"6T 
1 
S 


0.265625 

0.28125 

0.296875 

0.3125 

0.328125 

0.34375 

359375 

0.375 

0.390625 

0.40625 

0.421875 

0.4375 

0.453125 

0.46875 

0.484375 

0.5 


S3 

Ti 

17 
3? 
35 
ST 

9 
TS 
37 
67 
19 
T5 
39 
SA 

5 

8 

41 
S7 
21 
TS 
48 
67 
1 1 
T"6~ 
45 
67 
23 
3~3~ 
47 
67 

3 
¥ 


0.515625 

0.53125 

0.546875 

0.5625 

0.578125 

0.59375 

0.609375 

625 

0.640625 

0.65625 

0.671875 

0.6875 

0.703125 

0.71875 

0.734375 

0.75 


49 

67 
25 

~s~s 

61 
67 
13 
T6 
53 
67 
27 
3¥ 
55 
67 
7 

67 
67 
29 
~5"2 
59 
67 
15 
T6 
61 
67 
31 
3? 
63 
67 
1 


0.765625 

0.78125 

0.796875 

0.8125 

0.828125 

0.84375 

0.859375 

0.875 

0.890625 

0.90625 

0.921875 

0.9375 

0.953125 

0.96875 

0.984375 

1.0 



372 



COOPERAGE 



TABLE OF GAUGES 



« 
w 

M 
S 

D 

H 
O 

D 

o 


►a 
■< 
o 

H P 
J « 


Brown & Sharp 
American 
Standaud 


Birmingham qr 

Stubbs British 

Standard 


English Imperial 

Legal 

Standard 


Lancashire 

ONE OP 

Holtzappfel's 

Warrington 

or 

Rtland's 


Whitworth's 

English 

Standard 


« 
a 

n 

w 
w 


* 

o 

W 

& 


0000000 


.500 






.500 




500 










000000 


.468+ 


.... 


.... 


.464 


.... 


468+ 










00000 


.437+ 


.... 




.432 




437+ 










0000 


.406 + 


.460 


.454 


.400 


.... 


406+ 


.... 








000 


.375 


.409+ 


.425 


.372 




375 ' 


.... 








00 


.343+ 


.364 + 


.380 


.348 




343+ 













.312 + 


.324+ 


.340 


.324 




326 










1 


.281 + 


.289 + 


.300 


.300 


.227 


300 


.001 


.045 






2 


.265 + 


.257+ 


.284 


.276 


.219 


274 


.002 


.042 






3 


.250 


.229+ 


.259 


.252 


.209 


250 


.003 


.035 






4 


.234+ 


.204+ 


.238 


.232 


.204 


229 


.004 


.032 






5 


.218 + 


.181 + 


.220 


.212 


.201 


209 


.005 


.028 






6 


.203+ 


.162 + 


.203 


.192 


.198 


191 


.006 


.025 


.018 


7 


.187+ 


.144 + 


.180 


.176 


.195 


174 


.007 


.022 


.019 


8 


.171 + 


.128+ 


.165 


.160 


.192 


159 


.008 


.020 


.020 


9 


.156+ 


.114 + 


.148 


.144 


.191 


146 


.009 


.018 


.021 


10 


.140+ 


.101 + 


.134 


.128 


.190 


133 


.010 


.016 


.022 


11 


.125 


.090+ 


.120 


.116 


.189 


117 


.011 


.014 


.023 


12 


.109+ 


.080+ 


.109 


.104 


.185 


100 


.012 


.013 


.025 


13 


.093 + 


.071 + 


.095 


.092 


.180 


090 


.013 


.012 


.026+ 


14 


.078 + 


.064 + 


.083 


.080 


.177 


079 


.014 


.010 


.028 


15 


.080 + 


.057+ 


.072 


.072 


.175 


069 


.015 


.009 


.030 


16 


.062 + 


.050 + 


.065 


.064 


.174 


062+ 


.016 


.008 


.032 


17 


.056 + 


.045+ 


.058 


.056 


.169 


053 


.017 


.007 


.033+ 


18 


.050 


.040 + 


.049 


.048 


.167 


047 


.018 


.005 


.035 


19 


.043 + 


.035 + 


.042 


.040 


.164 


041 


.019 


.004 


.038 


20 


.037+ 


.031 + 


.035 


.036 


.160 


036 


.020 


.003 


.042 


21 


.034+ 


.028 + 


.032 


.032 


.157 


031 + 


.021 


.002 






22 


.031 + 


.025 + 


.028 


.028 


.152 


028 


.022 


.001 






23 


.028+ 


.022+ 


.025 


.024 


.150 




.023 








24 


.025 


.020+ 


.022 


.022 


.148 






.024 








25 


.021 + 


.017+ 


.020 


.020 


.146 






.025 








26 


.018 + 


.015+ 


.018 


.018 


.143 






.026 








27 


.017+ 


.014+ 


.016 


.016+ 


.141 


. . 




.027 








28 


.015+ 


.012+ 


.014 


.014+ 


.138 






.028 








29. 


.014 + 


.011 + 


.013 


.013+ 


.134 






.029 








30 


.012 + 


.010+ 


.012 


.012 + 


.125 


, . 




.030 








31 


.010+ 


.008 + 


.010 


.011 + 


.118 






.031 








32 


.010 


.007+ 


.009 


.010+ 


.115 


. . 




.032 








33 


.009+ 


.007 


.008 


.010 


.111 






.033 








34 


.008 + 


.006+ 


.007 


.009 + 


.109 






.034 








35 


.007+ 


.005+ 


.005 


.008+ 


.107 






.035 








36 


.007 


.005 


.004 


.007+ 


.105 


. . 




.036 








37 


.006+ 


.004 + 


.... 


.006+ 


.102 






.037 








38 


.006 


.003 + 


.... 


.006 


.100 






.038 








39 


.005 + 


.003 + 


.... 


.005 + 


.008 






.039 








40 


.005 


.003 + 




.005 


.096 






.040 








41 


.004+ 


.... 




.004 + 


.095 






.041 








42 


.004 


.... 


.... 


.004 


.091 


•• 




.042 








Note: 1 


"lie abov 


e rep res 


ent deci 


nal frae 


liim.-il part 


s 


>f : 


d inch. 









USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 373 



TABLE OF ALLOYS 





Approximate Percentage Composition 
by Weight 




Name 


PS 

ft. 

o 

a 


>-< 
E- 1 , 


g 

N3 


< 


Other 
Metals 


Uses and Remarks 


Gun Metal 


91 

75 
95 

92^ 

89 

90 
88 
83 

77 

3 

66% 

60 

56 
50 
50 
75 

60 


9 

25 

4 

' 7 
10 

io 

2 

8 
89 

10 
50 

m% 

80 

so 

" 


'i 

2 

15 

3sy 3 

40 

42 
37J4 
50 
25 

20 


15 

80 

86 
50 

18 

80 

8S 




j Ordnance, Bearings, Cast- 

) ings 

Bells, Gongs; Rather Brittle 


Bell Metal 


Bronze Coin 


Manganese Bronze 

Aluminum Bronze .... 
Composition Metal . 
Valve Metal 

Heavy Bearing Metal . . . 

Original Babbitt's Metal 

Babbitt Metal 

Delta Metal 


14 Phosphorus 

1 Manganese 
10 Aluminum 

j Trace of "| 

j Phosphorus j" 
8 Antimony 

20 Antimony 

2 Iron 


( Strong Castings, Heavy 
I Bearings 

Propeller Blades, Pumps; 
< It is very strong and 
f Non-corrosive 
Very High Tensile Strength 
Also called Best Valve Metal 
Cheaper Valves, Cocks, Etc. 

For Heavy Bearings 

For High Speed Bearings 

j For Repair Work on Bear- 

1 ings 

j Sheets, Wire, Tubes, Pipe 

j Fittings, Etc. 

j Bolts, Nuts, Etc.; Mal- 

| leable at Red Heat. 

Strong Sheets. Etc. 

Has Low Melting Point 

For Copper Work 

Very Strong 

(Ornaments, Resistance 

1 Wire 

For Safety Valves, Etc. 


Soft Brazing Metal 


Medium Brazing Metal . 
Hard Brazing Metal 

German Silver 

Fusible Plug 


20 Nickel 
4 Bismuth 


Common Solder. . . 


Fine Solder .'. 

Pewter 

Type Metal 


2 Antimony 
10 Antimony 
20 Antimony 
12 Antimony 


Plates, Mugs, Etc. 
Tableware, Etc. 
Type, Etc. 
Acid Cocks, Valves, Etc. 



GOVERNMENT OR TREASURY 
WHITEWASH 

What is known as ' ' Government" or ' ' Treasury white- 
wash," because the formula was sent out by the Light- 
house Board of the United States Treasury Department, 
is considered the best that can be made. To make it, 
slake % bushel of unslaked lime with boiling water, and 
cover it to keep in the steam. Strain the liquid through 
a fine sieve, and then add to it 1 peck of common salt, 
previously well dissolved in warm water; 3 pounds of 
ground rice boiled to a thin paste and stirred in boiling 



374 COOPERAGE 

hot; y 2 pound Spanish whiting, and 1 pound of clean 
giue which has also been previously dissolved. Then add 
to this mixture 5 gallons of hot water. Stir well, and let 
it stand covered for a few days. Then heat to a boiling- 
point and apply. "It should be applied hot, as this is 
essential to success." Do not allow the mixture to get 
lukewarm or cold. It can be kept hot by using a small 
pail suspended in a large pail of hot water. For neat 
work, brushes somewhat small should be used, and the 
whitewash should be applied in thin coats. A pint of 
the mixture if applied hot will cover about one square 
yard of surface. This preparation has been found to 
answer as well as oil paint for wood, brick, or stone, and 
is much cheaper. It retains its brilliancy for many years, 
and is equally desirable for inside or outside work. Any 
color may be added to the mixture except green, which 
causes the whitewash to flake off. Spanish brown stirred 
in makes a rose pink, and finely pulverized common clay 
mixed with Spanish brown makes a reddish stone color. 
The darkness of the shades is determined by the amount 
of color used. 

'TOWER EQUIVALENTS" 

One horsepower is equal to : 

1,980,000 foot-pounds per hour. 
33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 
550 foot-pounds per second. 
273,740 kilogramme-metres per hour. 
4,562.3 kilogramme-metres per minute. 
76.04 kilogramme-metres per second. 
2,552 British thermal units per hour. 
42.53 British thermal units per minute. 
0.709 British thermal unit per second. 
0.746 kilowatt. 
746 watts. 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 375 

One kilowatt is equal to: 

2,654,400 foot-pounds per hour. 

44,239 foot-pounds per minute. 

737.3 foot-pounds per second. 

366,970 kilogramme-metres per hour. 

6,116.2 kilogramme-metres per minute. 

101.94 kilogramme-metres per second. 

3,438.4 British thermal units per hour. 

57.30 British thermal units per minute. 

0.955 British thermal unit per second. 

1,000 watts. 

1.34 horsepower. 

One watt is equal to: 

2,654.4 foot-pounds per hour. 

44.239 foot-pounds per minute. 

0.737 foot-pound per second. 

366.97 kilogramme-metres per hour. 

6.12 kilogramme-metres per minute. 

0.102 kilogramme-metre per second. 

3.4384 British thermal units per hour. 

0.0573 British thermal unit per minute. 

0.000955 British thermal unit per second. 

0.001 kilowatt. 

0.0013406 horsepower. 

One foot-pound is equal to: 

0.0000003767 kilowatt per hour. 
0.0000226 kilowatt per minute. 
0.001356 kilowatt per second. 

0.000000506 horsepower per hour. 
0.0000303 horsepower per minute. 
0.001818 horsepower per second. 

0.0003767 watt per hour. 
0.0226 watt per minute. 

1.356 watt per second. 



376 



COOPERAGE 



One foot-pound is equal to: 

1.3825 kilogramme-metres. 

0.001288 British thermal unit. 

When estimating water power at 75 per cent, efficiency, 
a flow of 705 cubic feet of water per minute equals 1 
horsepower for each 1 foot fall. 



HYDRAULIC EQUIVALENTS 

One cubic foot of water 
One cubic foot of water 
One cubic foot of water 
One cubic foot of sea water 
One cubic foot of water 
One cylindrical foot of water 
One United States gallon 
One United States gallon 
One United States gallon : 
One United States gallon 
One imperial gallon 
One imperial gallon 
One gallon crude petroleum 
One gallon refined petroleum 



7.480 U. S. gallons. 


1,728 


cubic inches. 


6.232 


imperial gallons 


64 


pounds. 


62.42 


pounds. 


48.96 


pounds. 


8.34E 


j pounds. 


231 


cubic inches. 


0.83 


imperial gallon. 


3.8 


litres of water. 


277.3 


cubic inches. 


0.16 


cubic foot. 


6.5 


pounds. 


6.5 


pounds. 



MENSURATION 

Circumference of a circle = diameter X 3.1416. 
Circumference of a circle X -31831 = diameter. 
Diameter of a circle = circumference X .31831. 
Diameter of a circle X 3.1416 = circumference. 
Diameter of a circle X-8862 = side of an equal square. 
Diameter of a circle X .7071 = side of an inscribed 
square. 
Area of a circle = square of radius X 3.1416. 
Area of a triangle = base X half of altitude. 
Area of a square = base X height. 



USEFUL RULES AND INFORMATION 377 

Area of a trapezium = half the sum of two parallel 
sides X height. 

Area of a parabola = base X height X .6666. 

Area of an ellipse = long axis X short axis X 0.7854. 

Area of a parallelogram = base X height. 

Area of sector of circle == length of arc X one-half of 
radius. 

Square of diameter X .7854 = area of circle. 

Square root of an area X 1.12837 = diameter of equal 
circle. 

Side of a square X 1.12837 = diameter of equal circle. 

Contents of cylinder = area of end X length. 



INDEX 



SEC. PAGE 

A 

Acacia, three-thorned I 49 

Adjusting circular saws, 

for hammering and IV 114 

Air-seasoning, head piling 

and .' IX 285 

Air-seasoning, stave piling 

and VIII 240 

Alcoholic liquids, staves 
and heads of barrels con- 
taining II 86 

Alloys, table of XII 373 

Ambrosia or timber beetles II 74 

American elm I 37 

American linden. I 32 

Anatomical structure of 

wood I 13 

Annual or yearly ring, the I 9 

Arborvitse I 16 

Arrangement of mill, site 

and. VII 192 

Ash I 30 

Ash, black I 31 

Ash, blue I 31 

Ash, green I 31 

Ash, ground I 31 

Ash, hoop I 31 

Ash, Oregon I 31 

Ash, red I 31 

Ash, white I 31 

Aspen I 32 

Aspen I 55 

Assembling heading, match- 
ing or IX 292 

B 

Babbitt metal and babbit- 
ting XII 359 

Babbitting, Babbitt metal 

and XII 359 



SEC. 

Bald cypress I 

Ball tree, button I 

Balm of Gilead I 

Balsam I 

Balsam fir I 

Bark and pith I 

Bark on, round timber with II 
Barrels containing alco- 
holic liquids, staves and 

heads of II 

Barrel in Indiana, legal 

fruit XII 

Barrel in New York State, 

legal fruit XII 

Basket oak I 

Basswood I 

Basswood I 

Basswood I 

Basswood, white I 

Bastard pine I 

Bastard spruce I 

Bay poplar I 

Beech I 

Beech and maple staves, 

oak VIII 

Beech, blue 1 

Beech, water I 

Beech, water I 

Beetles, ambrosia or timber II 

Bee tree I 

Belting, notes on XII 

Belting, rules for calculat- 
ing power of XII 

Belts, horsepower of XII 

Belts, speed of XII 

Berry, sugar I 

Big-bud hickory .' . . I 

Bilsted I 

Birch I 

Birch, black I 



PAGE 
18 
55 
54 
54 
18 
7 
79 



86 
353 

353 

52 
32 
32 
57 
32 
22 
24 
44 
32 

235 
33 
33 
55 
74 
32 

353 

357 
358 
355 
47 
47 
39 
32 
33 



380 INDEX 

SEC. PAGE 

Birch, canoe I 33 

Birch, cherry I 33 

Birch, gray I 33 

Birch, mahogany I 33 

Birch, paper I 33 

Birch, red I 33 

Birch, river I 33 

Birch, sweet I 33 

Birch, white I 33 

Birch, yellow I 33 

Bitter-nut hickory I 48 

Black ash I 31 

Black birch I 33 

Black cottonwood I 54 

Black cypress I 18 

Black gum I 46 

Black hickory I 47 

Black hickory I 48 

Black-nut hickory I 47 

Black locust I 48 

Black locust I 48 

Black locust I 49 

Black oak I 52 

Black oak I 52 

Black pine I 23 

Black pine I 23 

Black spruce I 23 

Black walnut I 33 

Black walnut I 56 

Blue ashf I 31 

Blue beech I 33 

Blue poplar I 58 

Bois d'arc I 34 

Bois d'arc I 53 

Boiling vat, the hoop X 313 

Bolting room, the VIII 208 

Bolting saw, the VIII 214 

Bolting out IX 257 

Bolt equalizing machine, 

stave VIII 228 

Bolts, stave and heading. .VIII 216 
Bolts, insect injury to stave 

and heading II 83 

Bolts, steam-boxes for 

stave VIII 218 



SEC. 

Borers, flat-headed II 

Borers, powder post II 

Borers, round-headed II 

Boxes for stave bolts, 

steam VIII 

Broad-leaved maple I 

Broad-leaved trees, list of 

most important I 

Broad-leaved trees, wood of I 

Brown hickory I 

Buckeye I 

Buckeye, fetid I 

Buckeye, Ohio I 

Buckeye, sweet I 

Bud hickory, big I 

Bud hickory, switch I 

Bulldog furnace, the Dutch 

oven or VIII 

I 

I 

I 



Bull nut hickory 

Bull pine 

Bull pine 

Bundling or packing, head- 
ing IX 

Bundling or packing, stave.VIII 



Bur oak 

Burning slash or refuse. . . 

Butternut 

Butternut 

Butternut 

Buttonball tree 

Buttonwood 



I 

III 

I 

I 

I 
I 
I 



PAGE 

77 
78 
75 

218 
50 

30 
25 

48 
34 
34 
34 
34 
47 
48 

226 
47 
22 
23 

298 
249 
52 
99 
34 
34 
57 
55 
55 



C 

Calculating power of belt- 
ing, rules for XII 

Calculating speed of pul- 
leys, rules for XII 

Calculation, useful numbers 

for rapid XII 

Canoe birch I 

Canoe cedar I 

Capacity of cars XII 

Care of saws, the proper. . IV 
Carolina pine I 



357 

356 

370 

33 

16 

351 

122 

90 



INDEX 



381 



SEC. PAGE 

Cars, capacity of XII 351 

Catalpa I 34 

Cause and prevention of 

forest fires Ill 101 

Causes of poor results in 

saws, some IV 122 

Cedar I 16 

Cedar, canoe I 16 

Cedar, elm I 37 

Cedar, incense I 17 

Cedar of the West, red I 16 

Cedar, Oregon I 17 

Cedar, Port Oxford I 17 

Cedar, red I 17 

Cedars, red I 17 

Cedar, white I 16 

Cedar, white I 17 

Cedar, white I 17 

Cedar, white I 17 

Centre, to place an engine 

on the dead XII 366 

Changed conditions in for- 
estry Ill 96 

Characteristics and proper- 
ties of timber I 3 

Cherry I 35 

Cherry I 35 

Cherry birch I 33 

Chestnut I 35 

Chestnut, horse I 34 

Chestnut, horse I 48 

Chestnut, oak I 52 

Chinquapin I 35 

Chinquapin I 36 

Chinquapin oak I 52 

Chiefly used for slack coo- 
perage, woods VI 156 

Circular cut-off saw, the 

drop-feed VIII 212 

Circular ripsaws IV 128 

Circular ripsaws, standard 

number teeth in IV 130 

Circular saws, for hammer- 
ing and adjusting IV 114 

Circular saws, for setting.. IV 115 



SEC. PAGE 

Circular saws, for sharpen- 
ing and gumming IV 111 

Circular saws, for side- 
dressing IV 113 

Circular saws, for swaging IV 112 

Classes of trees I 5 

Cliff elm I 37 

Coffee nut I 36 

Coffee tree I 36 

Coiling machine, the hoop. X 321 

Collars for saws IV 131 

Color and odor I 62 

Comparative fuel value of 

wood, weight and XII 367 

Concerning effects of fires, 

erroneous ideas Ill 93 

Concerning forest fires, 

views of lumbermen Ill 95 

Conditions favorable for 

insect injury II 79 

Conditions in forestry, 

changed Ill 96 

Conditions which affect fire 

losses Ill 93 

Coniferous trees, wood 

of I 7 

Coniferous woods, list of 

more important I 16 

Constants, horsepower .... XII 369 
Cooperage stock and wood- 
en truss hoops, dry II 86 

Cooperage stock produc- 
tion, slack VI 158 

Cooperage stock, weights of 

slack XII 349 

Cooperage, woods chiefly 

used for slack VI 156 

Cord or rank, number of 

staves per VIII 235 

Cork elm I 37 

Cotton gum I 44 

Cottonwood I 36 

Cottonwood I 54 

Cottonwood I 55 

Cottonwood, black I 54 



SEC. 

Cottonwood staves, gum 

and VIII 

Cow oak I 

Cracks in equalizer saws. .VIII 
Cross-cut saws, cut-off or . . IV 
Cross-cut saws, standard 

number teeth in IV 

Crude products II 

Cuban pine I 

Cucumber tree I 

Cucumber tree I 

Cull staves,, dead. VIII 

Cup oak, mossy I 

Cup oak, over I 

Cup oak, over I 

Cut-off or cross-cut saws. . IV 

Cut-off saw, the VIII 

Cut-off saw, the drop-feed 

circular VIII 

Cut-off saw, the swing. . . .VIII 

Cutter, the hoop X 

Cutting machine, the stave.VIII 
Cutting process of manu- 
facturing hoops, the X 

Cylinder stave saw, the. . .VIII 
Cylinder stave saws, for 

gumming and sharpening IV 
Cylinder stave saws, for 

swaging IV 

Cypress 'I 

Cypress, bald I 

Cypress, black I 

Cypress, Lawson's I 

Cypress, red I 

Cypress, white I 

D 

D'arc, Bois I 

D'arc, Bois I 

Dead centre, to place an 

engine on the XII 

Dead cull staves VIII 

Dealing with the fire prob- 
lem, new departures in. . Ill 
Decimal equivalents XII 



INDEX 



PAGE 

235 

52 

230 

130 

131 
79 
22 
36 
56 

254 
52 
52 
52 

130 

209 

212 
239 
316 
231 

312 
236 

116 

117 
18 
18 
18 
17 
18 
18 



34 
53 

366 
254 

98 
371 



SEC. PAGE 



Demands of red gum upon 

soil and moisture I 41 

Departures in dealing with 

the fire problem, new... Ill 98 
Different grains of wood . '. . I 58 
Different ideas on temper 

of knives V 143 

Different species, weight of 

kiln-dried wood of I 68 

Difficulties of drying wood. IX 278 
Difficulties of transporting 

gum, the VII 191 

Discussion on knives, prac- 
tical V 143 

Distribution of water in 

wood IX 267 

Douglas spruce I 24 

Drag saw, the VIII 211 

Dressing circular saws, for 

side IV 115 

Drop-feed circular cut-off 

saw, the VIII 212 

Drum saws, for sharpening 

and gumming IV 116 

Drum saws, for swaging. . . IV 117 
Dry cooperage stock and 

wooden truss hoops II 86 

Drying kiln IX 280 

Drying wood, difficulties of IX 278 
Drying, unsolved problems 

in kiln . IX 279 

Duck oak I 53 

Dutch oven or bulldog fur- 
nace, the VIII 226 

Duty of steam engines XII 365 

E 

Effect fire losses, conditions 

which Ill 93- 

Effects of fires, erroneous 

ideas concerning Ill 93 

Effects of moisture on wood IX 270 

Elm I 36 

Elm, American I 37 

Elm, cedar I 37 



INDEX 



383 



SEC. 

Elm, cliff.... I 

Elm, cork '. I 

Elm, hickory I 

Elm, moose I 

Elm, red I 

Elm, rock I 

Elm, slippery •. . . I 

Elm staves VIII 

Elm, water I 

Elm, white • I 

Elm, white I 

Elm, winged I 

Emery wheels, use of V 

Emery wheels, speed of ... . V 

Enemies of wood II 

Enemy of forests, fires the 

greatest Ill 

Engines, duty of steam. . . . XII 
Engines, horsepower of 

steam XII 

Engine on the dead centre, 

to place an XII 

Equalizer saws, cracks in. .VIII 
Equalizing machine, stave 

bolt VIII 

Equipment, filing-room. ... IV 

Equivalents, decimal XII 

Equivalents, hydraulic .... XII 

Equivalents, power XII 

Erroneous ideas concerning 

effects of fires Ill 

Estimates of losses from 

forest fires, some Ill 

Evaporation of water in 

wood, manner of IX 

Evaporation of water in 

wood, rapidity of IX 

F 

Favorable for insect in- 
jury, conditions II 

Felling, time of VII 

Fetid buckeye I 

Field pine, old I 

Field pine, old I 



PAGE 

37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
37 
234 
37 
37 
37 
38 
148 
150 
71 

89 
365 

367 

366 
230 

228 
109 
371 
376 
374 

93 

90 

266 

269 



79 

178 

34 

22 

22 



SEC. PAGE 

Fighting forest fires, meth- 
ods of HI 102 

Files, to temper old V 147 

Filing-room equipment.... IV 109 

Fir I 18 

Fir, balsam . . I 18 

Fir, red I 18 

Fir, red ; .. I 19 

Fir, red I 24 

Fir, white I 18 

Fir, white I 18 

Fir, yellow I 24 

Fires, erroneous ideas con- 
cerning effects of Ill 93 

Fires, cause and prevention 

of forest Ill 101 

Fires, forest Ill 89 

Fires, general remarks on 

forest Ill 89 

Fire losses, conditions 
which effect Ill 93 

Fires, methods of fighting 

forest Ill 102 

Fire problem, new depart- 
ures in dealing with 
the Ill 98 

Fire protection on private 
lands Ill 97 

Fires, some estimates of 

losses from forest Ill 90 

Fires the great enemy of 

forests Ill 89 

Fires which are not usually 

considered, losses from. . Ill 92 

Fires, views of lumbermen 

concerning forest Ill 95 

Fitting and swaging IV 125 

Fitting not a mysterious 
process, saw IV 108 

Flat-headed borers II 77 

Fluids, receipts for solder- 
ing XII 361 

Forest fires Ill 89 

Forest fires, cause and pre- 
vention of Ill 101 



384 INDEX 

SEC. PAGE 

Forest fires, general re- 
marks on Ill 89 

Forest fires, methods of 

fighting Ill 102 

Forest fires, some esti- 
mates of losses from. . . . Ill 90 

Forest fires, views of lum- 
bermen concerning Ill 95 

Forest report, review of . . . VI 169 

Forests, fires the greatest 

enemy of Ill 89 

Forestry, changed condi- 
tions in Ill 96 

Form of red gum I 40 

Fruit barrel in Indiana, le- 
gal XII 353 

Fruit barrel in New York 

State, legal XII 353 

Fuel value of wood, weight # 

and comparative XII 366 

Furnace, the Dutch oven or 

bulldog VIII 226 

G 

Gauges, table of XII 372 

General remarks on forest 

fires Ill 89 

General remarks on tim- 
ber I 3 

General saw instructions . . IV 107 

Georgia pine I 21 

Gilead, balm of I 54 

Ginger pine I 17 

Glue to resist moisture .... XII 361 
Government or Treasury 

whitewash XII 371 

Grades on heading, stand- 
ard specifications and. . . IX 299 
Grades on hoops, standard 

specifications and X 324 

Grades on staves, standard 

specifications and VIII 252 

Grains of wood, different. . I 58 

Gray birch '. I 33 

Gray pine I 23 



SEC. PAGE 



Greatest enemies of forests, 







TIT 


89 








31 


Ground ash 






31 


Growth red gum, second . . 




43 


Growth, the question oi 


sec- 






ond 




III 
Til 


100 


Gum and Cottonwood staves"\ 


235 


Gum 






38 






46 








44 








40 


Gum, range of red .... 






39 


Gum, range of tupelo. 






46 


Gum, red 






39 


Gum, red 






55 


Gum, demands upon 


soil 






and moisture of red. 






41 


Gum, reproduction of r 


ed.. 




42 


Gum, second-growth.. . 






43 


Gum, sour 






55 


Gum, sour 




46 






39 


Gum, sweet 






55 


Gum, the difficulties 


of 






transporting 




VII 


191 


Gum, tolerance of red. 






41 


Gum, tupelo 






44 


Gum, uses of tupelo. . 






45 


Gumming circular saws 


, for 






sharpening and 




IV 


111 


Gumming and sharpening 






cylinder stave saws 


for. 


IV 


116 


Gumming, sharpening 


and. 


IV 


125 



H 

Hackmatack I 

Hackberry I 

Hackberry I 

Hammering and adjusting 

circular saws, for IV 

Hammering and tensioning 

saws IV 

Hard maple I 

Hard pines I 



19 

47 
47 

114 

133 

50 
21 



INDEX 



385 



SEC. PAGE 

Hardwoods I 30 

Harvesting raw material . . VII 175 

Headed borers, flat II 77 

Headed borers, round II 75 

Head liners X 324 

Heading and shingle bolts, 

stave II 83 

Heading bolts, stave and. .VIII 216 
Heading, bundling or pack- 
ing ; . IX 298 

Heading jointer, the IX 288 

Heading manufacture, slack IX 257 
Heading, matching or as- 
sembling IX 292 

Heading planer, the IX 285 

Heading production, slack. VI 166 

Heading room, the IX 285 

Heading saw, the pendulous 

swing IX 258 

Heading saw, the horizon- 
tal IX 262 

Heading, standard specifi- 
cations and grades on. . . IX 299 

Heading turner, the IX 293 

Head piling and air-season- 
ing IX 285 

Heads of barrels contain- 
ing alcoholic liquids, 

staves and II 86 

Heads produced, quantity 

of slack VI 165 

Heart hickory, white I 47 

Heartwood, sap and I 8 

Hemlock I 19 

Hemlock I 19 

Hemlock I 19 

Hickory I 47 

Hickory, big-bud I 47 

Hickory, bitternut I 48 

Hickory, black I 47 

Hickory, black I 48 

Hickory, black nut I 47 

Hickory, brown I 48 

Hickory, bull nut I 47 

Hickory, elm I 37 



SEC. 

Hickory, mockernut I 

Hickory, pig nut I 

Hickory, poplar I 

Hickory, shagbark I 

Hickory, shellbark I 

Hickory, swamp I 

Hickory, switch bud I 

Hickory, whiteheart I 

Holly 1 

Holly I 

Honey locust I 

Hoop ash I 

Hoop-boiling vat, the X 

Hoop-coiling machine, the. X 

Hoop cutter, the X 

Hoop planer, the X 

Hoop-pointing and lapping 

machine, the X 

Hoop production, slack .... VI 

Hoop, the patent X 

Hoops, dry cooperage stock 

and wooden truss II 

Hoops, methods of manu- 
facturing X 

Hoops on yard, piling X 

Hoops produced, quantity 

of slack VI 

Hoops, cutting process of 

manufacturing X 

Hoops, the manufacture of X 
Hoops, the sawing process 

of manufacturing X 

Hoops, the standard speci- 
fications and grades on . . X 
Horizontal heading saw, 

the IX 

Hornbeam I 

Horse chestnut I 

Horse chestnut I 

Horsepower constants XII 

Horsepower of an engine . . XII 
Horsepower of leather belts XII 
How to prevent insect in- 
jury II 

Hydraulic equivalents .... XII 



PAGE 

47 

48 

58 

47 

47 

48 

48 

47 

48 

48 

49 

31 

313 

321 

316 

318 

319 
167 
304 

86 

305 
323 

168 

312 
303 

309 

324 

262 

33 

34 

48 

369 

367 

358 

81 
375 



386 

SEC. 

I 

Ideas concerning effects of 

fires, erroneous Ill 

Ideas on temper of knives, 

different ; V 

Illinois nut I 

Important broad-leaved 

trees, list of I 

Important coniferous woods, 

list of I 

Incense cedar I 

Indiana, legal fruit barrel 

in XII 

Information on steam, use- 
ful rules and XII 

Information on water, use- 
ful rules and XII 

Injury, conditions favorable 

for insect II 

Injury, how to prevent in- 
sect II 

Insect injury, conditions 

favorable for II 

Insect injury, how to pre- 
vent II 

Inspection, stave VIII 

Instructions, general saw . . IV 

Iron oak I 

Ironwood I 

Ironwood I 

J 

Jersey pine I 

Jointer knife VIII 

Jointer, the heading IX 

Jointer, the stave VIII 

Jointing, stave VIII 

Juniper, savin I 

K 

Kiln-dried wood of differ- 
ent species, weights of . . I 

Kiln-drying IX 

Kiln-drying, unsolved prob- 
lems in IX 



INDKX 



PAGE 

93 

143 

48 

30 

16 
17 

353 

364 

362 

79 

81 

79 

81 
250 
107 
52 
33 
48 



23 

247 
288 
244 
244 
17 



68 

280 

279 



SEC. 

Knife jointer VIII 

Knife sharpening, for IV 

Knives, different ideas on 

temper of V 

Knives, practical discussion 

on V 

Knives, speed of V 

Knives, temper of V 

Knives, to temper V 



Land spruce, tide I 

Lands, fire protection on ■ 

private Ill 

Lapping machine, the hoop- 
pointing and X 

Larch I 

Lawson's cj'press I 

Lead of saws IV 

Leaf pine, long I 

Leaf pine, short I 

Leaf pine, yellow long.... I 
Leather belts, horsepower 

of XII 

Leaved maple, broad I 

Leaved trees, list of impor- 
tant broad I 

Leaved trees, wood of broad I 
Legal fruit barrel in Indi- 
ana XII 

Legal fruit barrel in New 

York State XII 

Lin I 

Linden, American I 

Liners, head X 

Lime tree .• I 

Liquidamber I 

Liquids, heads and staves 
of barrels containing. . . . 
List of important broad- 
leaved trees 

List of important conifer- 
ous woods 

Live oak 

Live oak 



PAGE 

247 

US 

143 

143 

144 
144 
146 



24 

97 

319 

1!) 
17 
127 
21 
22 
21 

358 
50 

30 
25 

353 

353 
32 
32 

324 
32 
39 



II 86 



30 



I 


16 


I 


53 


I 


53 



SEC. 

Loblolly pine I 

Locust I 

Locust, black I 

Locust, black I 

Locust, black I 

Locust, honey I 

Locust, sweet I 

Locust, yellow I 

Lodge pole pine I 

Long-leaf pine '. I 

Long-leaf pine, yellow I 

Long-straw pine I 

Losses, conditions which af- 
fect fire Ill 

Losses from forest fires, 

Some estimates of Ill 

Losses from fires which are 

not usually considered. . Ill 
Lumbermen concerning for- 
est fires, views of Ill 

M 

Machine, the stave bolt 

equalizing VIII 

Machine, the stave cutting. VIII 
Machine, the stave jointingVIII 
Machine, the hoop-coiling.. X 
Machine, the hoop-cutting. X 
Machine, the hoop-pointing 

and lapping X 

Magnolia I 

Mahogany birch I 

Management, modern shop . XI 

Management, woods VII 

Manner of evaporation of 

water in wood IX 

Manufacturing hoops, the 

cutting process of X 

Manufacturing hoops, the 

sawn process of X 

Manufacturing hoops, meth- 
ods of X 

Manufacture of hoops, the. X 
Manufacture, slack heading IX 
Manufacture, slack stave. .VIII 



INDEX 

PAGE SEC . 

22 Maple i 

48 Maple, broad-leaved I 

48 Maple, hard I 

48 Maple, red I 

49 Maple, rock I 

49 Maple, silver I 

49 Maple, soft I 

48 Maple staves, oak, beech 

23 and VIII 

21 Maple, sugar I 

21 Maple, swamp I 

21 Maple, water I 

Matching or assembling 

93 heading ix 

Material, harvesting raw. . VII 
Mature timber, plan for pro- 
tecting in 

Maul oak I 

Meadow pine I 

Mensuration XII 

Metal and babbitting, Bab- 
bitt XII 

Method of fighting forest 

fires in 

Methods of manufacturing 

hoops, different X 

Mill, site and arrangement 

of VII 

Mill, the slack stock VII 

Minute structure of wood.. I 

Mockernut hickory I 

Modern shop management. XI 
Moisture, demands of red 

gum upon soil and.... I 
Moisture, glue to resist. . . XII 
Moisture on wood, effects 

of • IX 

Moose elm I 

More important coniferous 

woods, list of I 

Mossy-cup oak I 

Most important broad- 
leaved trees, list of I 

Mulberry I 

Mulberry, red I 



90 



92 



95 



228 
231 
244 
321 
316 

319 

49 

33 

329 

184 

266 

312 

309 

305 
303 

257 
197 



387 

PAGE 
49 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 

235 
50 
50 
50 

292 

175 

99 

53 

22 

376 

359 

102 

305 

192 
194 

29 

47 

329 

41 
361 

270 

37 

16 

52 

30 
50 
50 



388 INDEX 

SEC. PAGE 

N 

New departures in dealing 

with the fire problem . . . Ill 98 
New York State, legal fruit 

barrel in XII 353 

Norway pine I 22 

Notes on belting XII 353 

Number and style of teeth 

in saws IV 127 

Number staves per cord or 

rank VIII 235 

Number teeth in circular 

ripsaws, standard IV 130 

Number teeth in cross-cut 

saws, standard IV 131 

Numbers for rapid calcula- 
tion, useful XII 370 

Nut, coffee I 36 

Nut hickory, bitter I 48 

Nut hickory, black I 47 

Nut hickory, bull ......... I 47 

Nut hickory, pig I 48 

Nut, Illinois I 48 

O 

Oak I 50 

Oak, basket I 52 

Oak, beech and maple 

staves VIII 235 

Oak, black I 52 

Oak, black I 52 

Oak, bur I 52 

Oak, chestnut I 52 

Oak, chinquapin I 52 

Oak, cow I 52 

Oak, duck I 53 

Oak, iron I 52 

Oak, live I 53 

Oak, live I 53 

Oak, maul I 53 

Oak, mossy-cup I 52 

Oak, over-cup I 52 

Oak, over-cup I 52 

Oak, peach I 53 

Oak, pin I 53 



SEC. 



Oak, possum 

Oak, post 

Oak, punk 

Oak, red 

Oak, red 

Oak, scarlet 

Oak, Spanish 

Oak, swamp post 

Oak, swamp Spanish .... 

Oak, swamp white 

Oak, swamp white 

Oak, Valparaiso 

Oak, water 



Oak, water .... 
Oak, willow . . . 
Oak, white .... 
Oak, white .... 
Oak, white .... 
Oak, white .... 
Oak, yellow . . . 
Oak, yellow . . . 
Odor, color and 
Ohio buckeye . 
Old field pine. . 
Old field pine. . 

Old files, to temper V 

Orange, osage 
Orange, osage 
Oregon ash . . . 
Oregon cedar 
Oregon pine . 
Orford cedar, 
Osage orange 
Osage orange 



Port. 



Oven or bulldog furnace, 

the dutch VII 

Over-cup oak 

Over-cup oak 



PAGE 
53 
52 
53 
52 
53 
53 
53 
52 
53 
52 
52 
53 
53 
53 
53 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
62 
34 
22 
22 
147 
34 
53 
31 
17 
24 
17 
34 
53 



Packing heading, bundling 

or IX 298 

Packing, stave bundling or.VIII 249 

Paper birch I 33 

Patent hoop, the X 304 



INDEX 



389 



SEC. PAGE 

Peach oak I 53 

Pecan I 48 

Pendulous swing heading 

saw, the IX 258 

Persimmon . I 54 

Pig nut hickory I 48 

Piling and air-seasoning, 

head IX 285 

Piling and air-seasoning, 

stave VIII 240 

Piling hoops on yard X 323 

Pin oak I 53 

Pine I 20 

Pine, bastard I 22 

Pine, black I 23 

Pine, black I "23 

Pine, bull I 22 

Pine, bull I 23 

Pine, Carolina I 22 

Pine, Cuban I 22 

Pine, Georgia I 21 

Pine, ginger I 17 

Pine, gray I 23 

Pine, Jersey I 23 

Pine, loblolly I 22 

Pine, lodge pole I 23 

Pine, long-leaf I 21 

Pine, long-straw I 21 

Pine, meadow I 22 

Pine, Norway I 22 

Pine, old field I 22 

Pine, old field I 22 

Pine, Oregon I 24 

Pine, pitch I 23 

Pine, pumpkin I 21 

Pine, rosemary I 22 

Pine, sap I 22 

Pine, scrub I 23 

Pine, scrub I 23 

Pine, scrub I 23 

Pine, short-leaf I 22 

Pine, short-straw I 22 

Pine, slash I 22 

Pine, slash I 22 

Pine, slash I 22 



SEC. PAGE 

Pine, soft I 21 

Pine, sugar I 21 

Pine, swamp I 22 

Pine, white I 21 

Pine, white I 21 

Pine, white I 21 

Pine, white I 21 

Pine, yellow I 21 

Pine, yellow I 21 

Pine, yellow I 22 

Pine, yellow I 22 

Pine, yellow long-leaf I 21 

Pine, hard I 21 

Pine, soft I 21 

Pitch pine I 23 

Pith, bark and I 7 

Plan for protecting mature 

timber Ill 99 

Planer, the heading IX 285 

Planer, the hoop X 318 

Pointing and lapping ma- 
chine, the hoop X 319 

Pole pine, lodge I 23 

Poor results in saws, some 

causes of IV 122 

Poplar I 54 

Poplar I 55 

Poplar I 58 

Poplar, bay I 44 

Poplar, blue I 58 

Poplar, hickory I 58 

Poplar, white I 58 

Poplar, yellow I 56 

Poplar, yellow I 58 

Port Or ford cedar I 17 

Possum oak I 53 

Post borers, powder II 78 

Post oak I 52 

Post oak, swamp I 52 

Power constants, horse .... XII 369 

Power equivalents XII 374 

Power of an engine, 

horse XII 367 

Power of belting, rules for 

calculating XII 357 



390 INDEX 

SEC. PAGE 

Power of leather belts, 

horse XII 358 

Powder post borers II 78 

Practical discussion on 

knives V 143 

Prevent insect injury, how 

to II 81 

Prevention of forest fires, 

cause and Ill 101 

Private lands, fire protec- 
tion on Ill 97 

Problem, new departures in 

dealing with the fire. . . . Ill 98 

Problem, the waste VIII 198 

Problems in kiln-drying, 

unsolved IX 279 

Process of manufacturing 

hoops, the cutting X 312 

Process of manufacturing 

hoops, the sawn X 309 

Process, saw-fitting not a 

mysterious IV 108 

Produced, quantity and val- 
ue of slack stock VI 160 

Produced, quantity of slack 

heads VI 165 

Produced, quantity of slack 

hoops VI 168 

Produced, quantity of slack 

staves VI 163 

Production, slack cooperage 

stock VI 158 

Production of slack stock. . VI 155 

Production, slack heading. VI 166 

Production, slack hoop. ... VI 167 

Production, slack stave. ... VI 162 

Production, slack stock. . . VI 153 

Products, crude II 79 

Products in the rough, sea- 
soned II 85 

Products in the rough, un- 
seasoned II 83 

Proper care of saws, the. . . IV 122 

Properties of timber, char- 
acteristics and I 3 



SEC. PAGE 

Protecting mature timber, 

plan for Ill 99 

Protection on private lands, 

fire Ill 97 

Pulleys, rules for calculat- 
ing speed of XII 356 

Pumpkin pine I 21 

Punk oak I 53 

Q 

Quantity and .value of stock 

produced VI 160 

Quantity of slack heads pro- 
duced VI 165 

Quantity of slack hoops pro- 
duced VI 168 

Quantity of slack staves 

produced VI 163 

Question of second growth, 

the Ill 100 



R 



Range of red gum 



I 

Range of tupelo gum I 

Rank, number of staves per 
cord or VIII 

Rapid calculation, useful 
numbers for XII 

Rapidity of evaporation of 
water in wood IX 

Raw material, harvesting.. VII 

Receipts for soldering flu- 
ids 

Red ash 

Red birch 

Red cedar 

Red cedar of the West. . 

Red cedars 

Red cypress 

Red elm 

Red fir 

Red fir 

Red fir 

Red gum 

Red gum 



39 
46 

235 

370 

269 
175 



XII 


361 


I 


31 


I 


33 


I 


17 


I 


16 


I 


17 


I 


18 


I 


37 


I 


IS 


I 


19 


I 


24 


I 


39 


I 


55* 



INDEX 



391 



SEC. PAGE 

Red glim, demands upon 

soil and moisture of . . . . I 41 

Red gum, form of I 40 

Red gum, range of I 39 

Red gum, reproduction of . . I 42 

Red gum, second-growth . .'. I 43 

Red gum, tolerance of I 41 

Red maple I 50 

Red mulberry I 50 

Red oak I 52 

Red oak I 53 

Redwood I 17 

Redwood I 23 

Refuse, burning slash and. Ill 99 
Remarks on forest fires, 

general Ill 89 

Remarks on timber, general I 3 

Report, review of forest. . . VI 169 

Reproduction of red gum. . I 42 

Resist moisture, glue to. . . XII 361 
Results in saws, some 

causes of poor IV 122 

Review of forest report. ... VI 169 

Ring, the annual or yearly I 9 

Ripsaws, circular IV 128 

Ripsaws, standard number 

teeth in circular IV 130 

River birch I 33 

Rock elm I 37 

Rock maple I 50 

Room equipment, filing. ... IV 109 

Room, the bolting VIII 208 

Room, the heading IX 285 

Rosemary pine I 22 

Round-headed borers II 75 

Round, saws out of IV 124 

Round timber with bark on II 79 
Rough, seasoned products 

in the II 85 

Rough, unseasoned products 

in the II 83 

Rules and information on 

steam, useful XII 364 

Rules and information on 

water, useful XII 362 I 



SEC. PAGE 

Rules for calculating horse- 
power of an engine XII 

Rules for calculating power 
of belting XII 

Rules for calculating speed 
of pulleys XII 



367 



357 



I 


8 


II 


82 


I 


22 


I 


55 



356 



S 

Sap and heartwood. ..... 

Saplings 

Sap pine 

Sassafras 

Sawn process of manufac- 
turing hoops X 309 

Saw-fitting not a mysteri- 
ous process IV 108 

Saw instructions, general. . IV 107 

Saw, the bolting VIII 214 

Saw, the cut-off, VIII 209 

Saw, the cylinder stave... VIII 236 

Saw, the drag VIII 211 

Saw, the drop-feed circular 

cut-off VIII 212 

Saw, the heading IX 258 

Saw, the horizontal head- 
ing IX 262 

Saw, the swing cut-off VIII 239 

Saws IV 106 

Saws, circular rip IV 128 

Saws, collars for IV 131 

Saws, cracks in equalizer . . VIII 230 
Saws, cut-off or cross-cut. . IV 130 
Saws, fitting and swaging. IV 125 
Saws, for gumming or sharp- 
ening circular ' IV 111 

Saws, for gumming or sharp- 
ening cylinder stave.... IV 116 
Saws, for hammering and 

adjusting circular IV 114 

Saws, for setting circular. . IV 115 
Saws, for side-dressing cir- 
cular IV 113 

Saws, for swaging circular. IV 112 
Saws, for swaging cylinder 
stave IV 117 



392 INDEX 

SEC. PAGE 

Saws, hammering and ten- 
sioning IV 133 

Saws, lead of IV 127 

Saws, number and style of 

teeth in IV 127 

Saws out of round IV 124 

Saws, sharpening and gum- 
ming IV 125 

Saws, some causes of poor 

results in IV 122 

Saws, speed of IV 132 

Saws, standard number 

teeth in circular rip IV 130 

Saws, standard number 

teeth in cross-cut IV 131 

Saws, the proper care of . . . IV 122 

Savin juniper I 17 

Scarlet oak I 53 

Scrub pine I 23 

Scrub pine I 23 

Scrub pine I 23 

Seasoned products in the 

rough II 85 

Seasoning IX 263 

Seasoning is, what IX 263 

Seasoning, head piling and 

air IX 285 

Seasoning, stave piling and 

air VIII 240 

Second-growth red gum ... I 43 

Second growth, the ques- 
tion of Ill 100 

Setting circular saws, for. IV 115 

Shagbark hickory I 47 

Sharpening and gumming 

saws IV 125 

Sharpening and gumming 

circular saws, for IV 111 

Sharpening and gumming 

cylinder stave saws, for. IV 116 

Sharpening, for knife IV 118 

Shellbark hickory I 47 

Shingle bolts, stave, head- 
ing and II 83 

Shop management, modern XI 329 



SEC. 

Short-leaf pine I 

Short-straw pine I 

Shrinkage of wood IX 

Side-dressing circular saws, ' 

for 1 V 

Silver maple I 

Site and arrangement of 

mill VII 

Slack cooperage, woods 

chiefly used for VI 

Slack cooperage, stock pro- 
duction VI 

Slack cooperage stock, 
weights of XII 



heading 



manufac- 



IX 
VI 



Slack 

ture 

Slack heading production. 
Slack heads produced, quan- 
tity of VI 

Slack hoop manufacture.. X 
Slack hoop production .... VI 
Slack hoops produced, quan- 
tity of VI 

Slack stave manufacture. .VIII 
Slack stave production. ... VI 
Slack staves produced, quan- 
tity of VI 

Slack stock mill, the VII 

Slack stock production .... VI 
Slack stock production of. VI 
Slack stock produced, quan- 
tity and value of VI 



Slash or refuse, burning. . Ill 

Slash pine I 

Slash pine I 

Slash pine I 

Slippery elm I 

Soft maple I 

Soft pine I 

Soft pines I 

Soil and moisture, demands 

of red gum upon I 

Soldering fluids, receipts 

for XI] 

Solutions, tempering V 



PAGE 

22 
22 

271 

113 
50 

192 

156 

158 

349 

257 

166 

165 
303 
167 

168 
197 
162 

1 63 
194 
153 
155 

160 
99 
22 
22 
22 
37 
50 
21 
21 

41 

361 

146 



INDEX 



393 



SEC. PAGE 
Some causes of poor results 

in saws IV 122 

Some estimates of loss from 

forest fires Ill 90 

Sour gum I 46 

Sour gum I 55 

Spanish oak I 53 

Spanish oak, swamp I 53 

Species, weight of kiln-dried 

wood of different •. . I 68 

Specifications and grades 

on heading, standard. . . . IX 299 
Specifications and grades 

on hoops, standard X 324 

Specifications and grades 

on staves, standard VIII 252 

Speed of belts XII 355 

Speed of emery wheels. ... V 150 

Speed of knives V 144 

Speed of pulleys, rules for 

calculating XII 356 

Speed of saws IV 132 

Spring and summer-wood. . I 10 

Spruce I 23 

Spruce, bastard I 24 

Spruce, black I 23 

Spruce, Douglas I 24 

Spruce, tide land I 24 

Spruce, white I 24 

Spruce, white I 24 

Standard number teeth in 

cross-cut saws IV 131 

Standard number teeth in 

ripsaws IV 130 

Standard specifications and 

grades on heading IX 299 

Standard specifications and 

grades on hoops X 324 

Standard specifications and 

grades on staves VIII 252 

Stave and heading bolts. . .VIII 216 
Stave bundling or packing. VIII 249 
Stave bolt equalizing ma- 
chine VIII 228 

Stave bolts, steam-boxes for VIII 218 



SEC. PAGE 

Stave-cutting machine ....VIII 231 

Stave, heading and shingle 

bolts II 83 

Stave inspection VIII 250 

Stave- jointing machine . . .VIII 244 

Stave jointing VIII 244 

Stave, manufacture, slack.VIII 197 

Stave piling and air-sea- 
soning VIII 240 

Stave production, slack. . . VI 162 

Stave saw, the cylinder. . .VIII 236 

Stave saws, for sharpening 

and gumming cylinder.. IV 116 

Stave saws, for swaging 

cylinder IV 117 

Staves and heads of bar- 
rels containing alcoholic 
liquids II 86 

Staves, dead cull VIII 254 

Staves, elm VIII 234 

Staves, gum and cotton- 
wood VIII 235 

Staves, oak, beech and ma- 
ple VIII 235 

Staves per cord or rank, 

number of VIII 235 

Staves produced, quantity 

of slack VI 163 

Staves, standard specifica- 
tions and grades on VIII 252 

Steam-boxes for stave bolts.VIII 218 

Steam engines, duty of ... . XII 365 

Steam engines, horsepower 

of XII 367 

Steam, useful rules and in- 
formation on XII 364 

Stock and wooden truss 

hoops, dry cooperage .... II 86 

Stock, production of slack. VI 155 

Stock production, slack coo- 
perage VI 158 

Stock production, slack... VI 153 

Stock produced, quantity of 

slack VI 160 

Stock mill, the slack VII 194 



394 



TNDEX 



SEC. PAGE 

Stock, weights of slack coo- 
perage XII 349 

Straw pine, long I 21 

Straw pine, short I 22 

Structure, anatomical .... I 13 

Structure of wood, minute. I 29 
Style of teeth in saws, 

number and IV 127 

Sugar berry I 47 

Sugar maple I 50 

Sugar pine I 21 

Summer- wood, spring and. I 10 

Swaging circular saws, for IV 112 

Swaging, fitting and IV 125 

Swaging cylinder stave 

saws, for IV 1 17 

Swamp hickory I 48 

Swamp maple I 50 

Swamp pine I 22 

Swamp post oak I 52 

Swamp Spanish oak I 53 

Swamp white oak I 52 

Swamp white oak I 52 

Sweet birch I 33 

Sweet buckeye I 34 

Sweet gum I 39 

Sweet gum I 55 

Sweet locust I 49 

Swing cut-off saw, the. . ..VIII 239 
Swing heading saw, the 

pendulous IX 258 

Switch bud hickory I 48 

Switch, the unloading VII 193 

Sycamore I 55 

Sycamore I 56 



Table of alloys XII 373 

Table of gauges XII 372 

Table of tempers to which 

tools should be drawn . . V 147 

Tamarack I 19 

Tamarack I 19 

Tamarack I 20 

Tamarack I 23 



SEC. PAGE 

Tamarack I 25 

Teeth in circular ripsaws, 

standard number IV 130 

Teeth in cross-cut saws, 

standard number IV 131 

Teeth in saws, number and 

style of IV 127 

Temper knives, to V 140 

Temper of knives V 144 

Temper of knives, different 

ideas on . . . V 143 

Temper old files, to V 147 

Tempering solutions V 140 

Tempers to which tools 

should be drawn, table of V 147 
Tensioning saws, hammer- 
ing and IV 133 

Thorned acacia, three I 49 

Three-thorned acacia I 49 

Tide-land spruce I 24 

Timber beetles, ambrosia.. II 74 
Timber, characteristics and 

properties of I 3 

Timber, general remarks on 1 3 
Timber, plan for protecting 

mature Ill 99 

Timber with bark on, round II 79 

Timber worms II 77 

Time of felling VII 178 

Tolerance of red gum I 41 

Tools should be drawn, ta- 
ble of tempers to which. V 147 
Transporting gum, difficul- 
ties of VII 191 

Treasury or Government 

whitewash XII 373 

Tree, bee I 32 

Tree, button-ball I 55 

Tree, coffee I 36 

Tree, cucumber I 36 

Tree, cucumber I 56 

Tree, lime I 32 

Tree, tulip I 56 

Tree, tulip I 58 

Trees, classes of I 5 



INDEX 



395 



SEC. PAGE 

Trees, list of important 

broad-leaved I 30 

Trees, list of important 

coniferous I 16 

Trees, wood of broad-leaved I 25 

Trees, wood of coniferous. . . I 7 
Truss hoops, dry cooperage 

stock and wooden II 86 

Tupelo I 56 

Tulip .■ . I 57 

Tulip tree I 56 

Tulip tree I 58 

Tulip wood I 54 

Tupelo gum I 44 

Tupelo gum, range of I 46 

Tupelo gum, uses of I 45 

Turner, the heading IX 293 

U 

Unloading switch, the.... VII 193 

Unseasoned products in the 

rough II 83 

Unsolved problems in kiln- 
drying IX 279 

Useful numbers for rapid 

calculation XII 370 

Useful rules and informa- 
tion on steam XII 364 

Useful rules and informa- 
tion on water XII 362 

Uses of tupelo gum I 45 



Valparaiso oak I 53 

Value of slack stock pro- 
duced, quantity and VI 160 

Value of wood, weight and 

comparative fuel XII 366 

Vat, the hoop-boiling X 313 

Views of lumbermen con- 
cerning forest fires Ill 95 



SEC. PAGE 

I 33 

I 56 

I 34 

. I 57 



W 



Wahoo . 
Walnut 



38 
56 



Walnut, black 

Walnut, black 

Walnut, white 

Walnut, white 

Waste problem, the VIII 198 

Water beech I 33 

Water beech I 55 

Water elm I 37 

Water in wood, distribu- 
tion of IX 267 

Water in wood, manner of 

evaporation of IX 266 

Water in wood, rapidity of 

evaporation of IX 269 

Water maple I 50 

Water oak I 53 

Water oak I 53 

Water, useful information 

and rules on XII 362 

Weight and comparative 

fuel value of wood XII 366 

Weight of kiln-dried wood 

of different species I 68 

Weight of wood . I 63 

Weights of slack cooperage 

stock XII 349 

West, red cedar of the I 16 

Wheels, emery V 148 

Wheels, speed of emery. ... V 150 

White ash I 31 

White basswood I 32 

White birch I 33 

White cedar I 16 

White cedar' I 17 

White cedar I 17 

White cedar I 17 

White cypress I 18 

White elm I 37 

White elm I 37 

White fir I 18 

White fir I 18 

White-heart hickory I 47 

White oak I 52 

White oak I 52 

White oak I 52 



396 

SEC. 

White oak I 

White oak, swamp I 

White oak, swamp I 

White pine I 

White pine I 

White pine I 

White pine I 

White poplar I 

White spruce I 

White spruce I 

White walnut I 

White walnut I 

Whitewash, Treasury or 

Government XII 

White willow I 

Whitewood I 

Whitewood I 

Whitewood I 

Willow oak I 

Willow, white I 

Winged elm I 

Wood, anatomical structure 

of I 

Wood, different grains of . . I 

Wood, difficulties of drying IX 
Wood, distribution of water 

in IX 

Wood, effects of moisture 

on IX 

Wood, enemies of II 

Wood, iron I 

Wood, iron I 

Wood, manner of evapora- 
tion of water in » . . IX 

Wood, minute structure of I 

Wood of coniferous trees . . I 

Wood of broad-leaved trees I 
Wood of different species, 

weight of kiln-dried I 



INDEX 



PAGE 
52 
52 
52 
21 
21 
21 
21 
58 
24 
24 
34 
57 

373 

57 
56 
57 
58 
53 
57 
38 

13 

58 
278 

267 

270 

71 
33 

48 

266 

29 

7 

25 

68 



SEC. PAGE 



Wood, rapidity of evapora- 
tion of water in IX 

Wood, white I 

Wood, white I 

Wood, white I 

Woods chiefly used for 

slack cooperage VI 

Woods, list of important 

coniferous I 

Woods management VII 

Wood, shrinkage of IX 

Wood, spring and summer. I 
Wood, weight and compar- 
ative fuel value of XII 

Wood, weight of I 



Wood, weight of kiln-dried I 
Wooden truss hoops, dry 

cooperage stock and II 

Worms, timber II 



Yard, piling hoops on X 

Yearly ring, the annual 

or 

Yellow birch '. 

Yellow fir 

Yellow locust 

Yellow long-leaf pine 

Yellow oak 

Yellow oak 

bellow pine 

Yellow pine 

Yellow pine 

Yellow pine 

Yellow poplar 

Yellow poplar 

Yew 

Yew 



269 
56 
57 

58 

156 

16 
184 
271 

10 

364 
63 
68 

86 

77 



323 

9 
33 
24 
48 
21 
52 
52 
21 
21 
22 
22 
56 
58 
25 
25 



MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 






MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 









MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 






MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 



■J 



MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 






MEMORANDUM 



MEMORANDUM 






J. D. Hollingshead Co 

Chicago, 111. 



MANUFACTURERS OF 

COOPERAGE STOCK 

FOR TIGHT AND 

SLACK BARRELS 



Send Us Your Inquiries for 
Staves, Headings or Hoops 



Write Us What You Have For Sale 



p. 



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